Subterranean Histories: Making ‘Artisanal’ Miners on the West African Sahel by Robyn Whitney d’Avignon A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Anthropology and History) in the University of Michigan 2016 Doctoral Committee Professor Gabrielle Hecht, Chair Professor Nancy Rose Hunt Professor Stuart Kirsch Associate Professor Michael McGovern Associate Professor Rudolph T. Ware Copyright 2016 by Robyn Whitney d’Avignon All rights reserved. This dissertation is dedicated to my mom, Linda Pegg d’Avignon And it is in the memory of Djiba Diallo and Manga Kamara ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It is an honor to thank publically the institutions, colleagues, friends, and strangers who made this dissertation possible. The following agencies generously funded coursework in Ann Arbor and field research in Senegal, Guinea, and France: The National Science Foundation Graduate Research Fellowship, The Wenner Gren Foundation Dissertation Field Research Grant, and the Social Science Research Council International Dissertation Research Fellowship. At the University of Michigan, a Dow Doctoral Sustainability Fellowship supported a year of writing and an LSA Regents Fellowship a year of coursework. For financial support, I am deeply grateful to the following institutes also at Michigan: the Eisenberg Institute, the African Studies Center, the International Institute, the Department of Afroamerican and African Studies, the Department of Anthropology, Rackham Graduate School, and the Sweetland Writing Center. Senegal’s Ministère de l'Education et de la Recherche and the Gouvernance de Kedougou generously authorized my research in Senegal. For their sponsorship and the gracious assistance of Mariane Yade, I am grateful to the West African Research Association in Dakar. This project was transformed by my access to a portion of the archives of the Direction des Mines et de la Géologie, made possible by Ousmane Cisse and Diene Rokhaya Samba. I thank the staff of the Archives Nationales du Sénégal and, in particular, Boubacar Ndiaye. Saokho Mame Diarra of the Archives du Soleil offered her patience, expertise, and lunch tickets. I benefited from several collections at the Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire. For assistance with the Cahiers William Ponty, I thank El Hadji Birame Diouf. For guiding me through the rich photography collection, I thank Madame Thiam and Moustapha Niang. In both Ann Arbor and Dakar, Ibrahima Thioub offered advice and hospitality. At the Université de Cheikh Anta Diop in Dakar, I am indebted to the Département de Géologie and the Institut des Sciences de la Terre. Geologists and engineers associated withthese departments introduced me to the history of geology in Senegal. In particular, I thank Hamidou Sow, Lamine Sy, Dina Pathe Diallo, Papa Mababa Diagne, Edmond Diof, Babacar Diouf, and David Mbaye. My deepest debts are to Alioune Sarr, Abdoulaye Aziz Ndiaye, Moussa Diba and Cheikh Diop—all formidable earth scientists and people. For facilitating my initial entry into Senegal, I thank the Peace Corps and, in particular, Chris Hedrick, Cheikh Diallo and Moukhtar Diallo. My debts in Kedougou are profound, particularly to the families who nurtured me with food and language lessons, cared for me when I was ill, and welcomed me into their homes. For their tolerance and absurdity, I thank my Togué family: Manga and Aliou Kamara and their children, Ndiogou, Fatoumata, Mamadou, Mawdo, Dienabou, and Sanoumou. Manga passed away during the final revisions of this dissertation. I hope he knew how much I cared for and admired him Sokhana Keita is a precious friend, “bandit,” and rigorous teacher of Fulfulde and of life. Idi Diallo taught me to chop bamboo and held my hand through early days in Togué. I shared countless meals and celebrations with Amadou, Sara, and Malaal Kamara. In Koboye, Balaal Kamara and Aissatou Keita offered mangos. Mamadou Diallo and Khalifa Kébé gave me a second home in Dimboli, and introduced me to Djiba, who died tragically during the writing of this dissertation, leaving behind to young children and a loving husband. For teaching me to live generously, this dissertation is dedicated iii to the memory of Jibah and Baaba Manga Kamara. Where could I even begin to thank Pape Diallo? We have shared every joy, heartache and dream of the past decade. In 2013 and 2014, I lived in the household of his parents, Amadou Wuri and Binta Diallo of Kedougou. Néné Diallo healed when I was ill. Hawa, Petit, Néné Galle, Mamadou, and Sophie Diallo adopted me as a sister. I can never adequately thank the beautiful and smart Adji Seck. I think of her every day. Filé Sadikaho offered memories, an emotional goodbye in 2008 and a warm celebration upon my return in 2013. El Hadj “Hadji” Mamadou Cissé became the closest of friends after his budding transportation company offered assistance in delivering bed nets for a Peace Corps project. Thank you for giving me insight into the transnational making of a Senegalese politician. Since 2006, Mamadou Diallo has treated me as a peer and fellow dreamer. For conversation, contacts, and insight, I thank Khalidou Cissokho of the Agence Régional de Développement in Kedougou, Abdoul Karim Keita of L'Association Kedougou Action Kedougou Action Développement, Aruna Diop of Kedougou’s gendarmerie, Seydi Ndiaye of USAID’s Yaajende, Yousseph Diallo of the Maison de Justice. During every return trip, the team of La Lumière offered friendship and evening ‘ataya. Bocar Diallo was a friend and intrepid travel partner. I thank Arouna Traouré, Abdoulaye Balde, and Aliou Bakhoum for their assistance time and time again. I cannot thank Doba Diallo adequately for welcoming into his family in Kedougou and in Daandé. I am deeply grateful to Harouna Diallo and the entire village of Daandé. “Mi amigo,” Modou Khouma shared his knowledge of agriculture and a difficult return to school in 2009. Aliou Monékheta’s friendship came at just the right moment. The exemplary Kedougou-based journalists, Famakhan Dembélé, Adama Diop and Adama Diaby, sharped my questions. Many of the artisanal miners, healers, merchants, Imams, and businessmen I interviewed for this dissertation are acknowledged in footnotes and in the bibliography. Others requested their anonymity. I thank them all deeply for sharing insights, memories, and their working lives. Chiefs of the following villages hosted, responded to questions, and put me in touch with elders and expert artisanal miners throughout the region: Mako, Tinkoto, Bambaraya, Tomboroncoto, Kanoumering, Momokhono, Haara Khena, Sambaranbugu, Duuta, Linguékoto, Kérékonko, Tambanoumia, Bantaco, Saraya, Niemenéké, Samecouta, Mako, and Syllacounda. In particular, I thank Bambo Cissokho for a warm and permanent entryway into Tinkoto. Sons of the dioura, Gassimou and Siriman guided me by motorcycle and shared their knowledge. In Tomboroncoto, Mamadou Dramé shared his personal library. In particular, conversations with Younkoun Kamara, Bliesse Kamara, Filé Keita, Soriba Keita, Diba Felix Keita, and El Hadji Alpha Diby Souaré, and Mamadou N’Dionge enriched this project. Of the Direction of Mines in Kedougou and Tambacounda, I thank Lamine Sy, Lamine Touré, and Sado Mody Kaba. In Tambacounda, El Hadji Saloum Diakhité instructed me in southeastern Senegal’s political history. I thank him. I owe a profound debt to several remarkably men who worked with me as research assistants during my dissertation research in Senegal. Maciré Diallo and Khouddouse Diallo helped me make sense of archival files in Dakar. I could not have navigated the Diakha and Niokholo without Pape “Dayo” Diallo and his father, Jean Diallo. Aminata provided lunch during the arduous process of transcribing interviews back in Kedougou. My sweetest debt is to Falaye Danfakha, now an extension of my closest circle of family and friends. Falaye knows this project better than I do. His intelligence, curiosity, and stubborn belief in justice, carried me through the most depleting phases of this project. Falaye also introduced me to the smart and charming Madi Kamara, who navigated us through Tinkoto and other diouras. In Guinea, I am most grateful to Abdoulaye Diallo, who supported my visits Guinea however he could. In Kankan, I thank Djiba Kaba and his family and Darlene Darmeous. Khalifa iv Diallo hosted in Labe. I thank Mamadou Kaba and his brother in Conakry. Despite the electricity outages, I thank the staff of the Archives Nationales de la Guinée for their assistance. I am grateful to Moriké Sidibé for securing an affiliation with the Université de Kankan. In Paris, Cheikhou Souaré and Siré Danfakha hosted and shared insights on Kedougou’s diaspora. Camille De Vitry shared her films and writing. Sady Danfakha introduced me to students and activists. In Barcelona, Taouda Djiguiba hosted me and Younkoun Kamara deepened my knowledge of the transnational webs that bind Kedougou, France, and Spain. Throughout the years, John-Paul and Julie Fortney have welcomed me in Paris, offering glimpses into a creative business and evolving relationship. I thank the archivists of the Centre des Archives d’Outre-mer and several outstanding fellow researchers: George Trumbull, Christina Mobley, Gregory Mole, Yan Slobodkin, Terrance Peterson, and Sarah Westwood. This journey began with a passion for anthropology, seeded when I was an undergraduate Washington University in St. Louis. I thank Glenn Davis Stone for introducing me to ethnography, rejecting mediocrity, a key meeting in St. Louis in 2013, and for believing in me. As only Glenn could know, questions animating this dissertation emerged from a research project on contract poultry farming in the American South. At Washington University, I also benefited from training by Shanti Parikh, John Bowen, Tristram Kidder and Pete Benson. Marc Fourrier and Laura Cochrane shared their love of Senegal and encouraged me to go. I have benefited greatly from the resources and community of the Departments of Anthropology and History at the University of Michigan. In the anthropology department, I am grateful to the advice of Matthew Hull, Jatin Dua, and Judith Irvine.