Christian Fundamentalisms and Women’s Rights in the African Context: Mapping the Terrain Jessica Horn Introduction1 “If Pentecostal churches continue to grow in numbers and activism, the Christian Fundamentalisms long-range political impact of Africa’s vibrant Pentecostal community will become increasingly difficult to ignore.” The PEW Forum on Religion and Women’s Rights in and Public Life2 the African Context: M apping “The time has come for us as a women’s movement and as feminists the Terrain to talk about our non-negotiables and the fact that we should not let the church define our rights.” Solome Nakaweesi-Kimbugwe, Ugandan feminist and human rights defender3 This case study explores the dynamics of Christian fundamentalisms in sub-Saharan Africa and the impacts of fundamentalist doctrine, advocacy and mobilization on women’s rights in the African context. It aims to begin to elucidate the ways in which activists understand and define Christian fundamentalisms, highlight the agendas and some of the impacts of fundamentalist activity on women’s rights in different contexts, understand the strategies used by fundamentalists, and consider possible counter-fundamentalist strategies that can be pursued. The case study focuses on fundamentalism in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity, as well as fundamentalist actors in mainline Protestant churches. The working definition of religious fundamentalism used here is a morally conservative ideology based on, and justified by, a particular interpretation of scripture that seeks to promote and establish itself as hegemonic. While there is a great deal of debate among African feminists and other progressive activists around the growing impact of Christian fundamentalisms, there has been comparatively little research and written analysis on the agendas, trends and mobilizing tactics of Christian fundamentalist actors. In this context, this case study aims to contribute to the process of mapping the terrain and identifying potential areas for further research and strategic action. This case study draws on interviews with seven African activists and academics working on and/or affected by Christian fundamentalisms,4 2 Jessica Horn 1 as well as the relatively limited written material on contemporary Evangelism, or the practice of proselytizing with the aim of conversion, Christian fundamentalisms in Africa. Religious belief and practice is in fact practised in many forms of Christianity, and not exclusively across African countries is dynamic and diverse. However there are also by charismatics or indeed moral conservatives. In this case study I have many common strands, aided by the fact that Christianity is global in chosen to use the terms Pentecostal and charismatic, guided by the nature, and by the fact that fundamentalist clergy actively network with, following definitions:6 learn from, and replicate discourses and mobilizing strategies applied by fundamentalists in other countries, in particular by the Christian right Pentecostalism: a Christian religious movement that places special in the United States. emphasis on the direct personal experience of God. Most denominations believe in the practice of baptism of the Holy Spirit (which bestows Assessing the perspectives of the activists and academics interviewed, powers including prophecy, miracles and faith healing onto believers), my conclusion here is that religion is a vehicle rather than the root cause evidenced by speaking in tongues. Pentecostalism is said to have of fundamentalist doctrine. In the African context, religious discourses originated in the teachings of U.S. Midwestern preacher Charles Parham and institutions have been used opportunistically by politicians and and then African American preacher William J. Seymour, who sparked extreme conservatives in civil society as a means of pushing their the Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles in 1906.7 political, ideological and economic agendas on a range of issues from staying in power, to becoming wealthy, to maintaining legal and social Charismatic: a form of Christianity emphasizing a direct relationship gender inequality. The new wave of African Pentecostalism and its with God and manifestations of gifts of the Holy Spirit, such as miracles, charismatic derivates in particular have proved a useful tool to this end prophecy, healing powers and speaking in tongues. It grew out of because of four key characteristics: a mass popular base (crucial for Pentecostalism but then spread to other denominations including mobilizing political pressure and votes); a theology that focuses on and mainline Catholic and Protestant churches. Many African charismatic celebrates prosperity and accumulation of capital (and can thus facilitate churches are non-denominational. both wealth accumulation and lucrative corruption); a lack of regulation given the absence of a centralized religious authority and weak non- profit oversight mechanisms in the respective countries; and the lack Fundamentalisms in Context of a hermeneutic tradition and/or critical debate about scripture, both “Religion [in Africa] is a marketplace; it is about what works.” Dora King8 of the latter two characteristics enabling the doctrine to spread largely unquestioned.5 For politicians, the draw in aligning themselves with Pentecostal and charismatic churches and their influential pastors is The Birth and Growth of Christianity in Africa the sheer number of people involved in the churches, which constitutes In order to understand the dynamics of Christian Pentecostal and an important base of votes. The fact that the constituencies of these charismatic fundamentalisms in Africa, it is critical to understand the churches are predominantly economically disenfranchised women and history and contemporary dynamics of Christianity in the region. It men with limited access to information or social and political capital is not possible to provide a comprehensive history of a highly diverse means that they can also be drawn to the church through promises of religion across an enormous region here. However, I have attempted to improvement in their material conditions. highlight key trends that help to situate contemporary Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity and the fundamentalist actors within them. A Note on Naming Christian Denominations Christianity was first brought to Africa in the 1st and 2nd centuries, There is a lack of consistency and clarity in the naming of the different resulting in the establishment and spread of Coptic and Orthodox Christian religious movements and institutions in Africa in both churches in the North and Horn of Africa. However it was Portuguese the academic literature and in public discourse. This is due in part explorers and colonists who laid the foundation for the spread of to the staggering variety of permutations of Christian churches in Christianity in sub-Saharan Africa in the 15th century. Both Catholic contemporary Africa, and the fact that many of these churches are and Protestant Christianity spread across sub-Saharan Africa from the non-denominational, grafting elements of different Christian and 16th to 19th centuries through European colonization and missionary non-Christian traditions as needed. It is common for people to use the activity led by Europeans and later their converts, including evangelized terms “born again,” “Pentecostal” and “evangelical” interchangeably slaves. European mission schools educated generations of African elites when referring to the growing strands of evangelical Protestantism. in Christian theology, and supported evangelical efforts across the 2 Jessica Horn 3 continent, which gained momentum in the 1900s as Europeans deepened on a conversion mission.14 However, the surge in Pentecostal and other their political and economic hold on the continent. The mainline charismatic churches emerged in the 1970s, spurred in part by American Protestant churches, including the Anglican Church, established evangelists targeting Africa as part of their agenda of saving souls. themselves firmly in British colonies, and have remained as influential They expounded a form of prosperity theology that proved appealing actors in post-independence African states. The political stance of these to Africans dealing with economic disenfranchisement in the post- churches and their clergies are varied, and include both outspoken, independence era. Without an orthodoxy or centralized governance progressive clergy as well as extreme conservatives. The conservative structure, Pentecostalism and charismatic Christianity also presented movement among Anglicans is increasingly supported by Christian a platform for Africans themselves to found churches and begin to right allies in the United States seeking to undermine the power of fashion new forms of worship and church structures. Unlike earlier progressives within the Anglican Communion, using debates on same- waves of African Christian leadership drawn from social elites, the new sex marriage and the ordination of gay clergy to foster dissent. An Pentecostal and charismatic churches have been led by people from example of this trend is the move by three parishes in the Diocese of Los across the class spectrum, including lower socio-economic classes. As Angeles to move to join the Anglican Church of Uganda in a protest over pastors have amassed wealth, some have also focused on expanding their bishop’s support for the rights of gay Christians.9 their infrastructure of influence among African elites, including founding universities15