UNITED STATES SPORTS ACADEMY ASSESSING THE POTENTIAL TRANSGENDER IMPACT ON GIRL CHAMPIONS IN AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL TRACK AND FIELD A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the United States Sports Academy in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in Sports Management by Gabriel A. Higerd chair: Dr. Brandon Spradley Daphne, Alabama December 2020 DEDICATION To my five beautiful and wonderful girls. May you grow in stature, knowledge and wisdom; and fulfill the purposes for which you were made. I love you forever and unconditionally. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The researcher is deeply grateful for all those who have helped me along the way in this journey; the researcher could not do it on my own. Above all, to my wife Mari, whose contributions to my success in every way cannot be measured nor appropriately accounted for. To my children, who shared workspaces, bandwidth, and their dad with this project. To my parents and grandparents, who placed high value and priority on higher education and supported me all along the way. To the football coaches who dramatically shaped who the researcher is, in particular Victor Santa Cruz, Brian Willmer, Peter Shinnick, Dr. Sean Rochelle, Tom Gault, plus the myriad of assistant coaches who the researcher has had the pleasure to work with and be coached by. Among them are Bo Beatty, Rudy Carlton, Ben Buys, Spencer Danielson, Justin Riddle, Manako Tuafua and so many more that the researcher loves and appreciates. To my colleague and NFL Hall of Famer, Jackie Slater, for his friendship and mentorship over the years. The researcher is grateful to the Army leaders who built into me during a pivotal period in my life, and the soldiers and cadets that this researcher was honored to lead and mentor. thankful for the faculty at Concorida University Irvine, who guided my master’s studies and instilled a desire to keep learning and growing. To LTC Mark Goeller, who helped me secure my first teaching position at Claremont McKenna College. To the staff at Azusa Pacific University, for their care for others. To Dr. Sharron Lehman who gave me my first teaching position in the kinesiology department and who recommended her alma mater, the United States Sports Academy, as a good fit for me to pursue my iii doctorate. To Dr. Eric Sorenson for his mentorship as the researcher began teaching in sport and exercise science. To the thousands of students and players over the years, who allowed me to live out my passion for teaching, training, and competing, it is them that the researcher misses most when not on the field or in the classroom. The researcher is grateful to the faculty and staff at the United States Sports Academy. In particular, the researcher would like to thank my committee members for their encouragement, advice, and guidance, Dr. Fred Cromartie, Dr. Bonnie Tiell, and my committee chair Dr. Brandon Spradley. Their enthusiasm and support of my work went a long way in buoying my spirit and mindset. To Dr. Liz Weaver of the United States Military Academy at West Point, the researcher is grateful for her careful reading of the manuscript, including edits and suggestions. Finally, to my grandfather Andrew Kubica “Gramps,” a farm boy, WWII veteran, rocket scientist literally responsible for putting a man on the moon, father of 5 girls, and grandfather of 11. May his oft-repeated refrain echo in my ears and remain true, “promise me this, that you will never become an educated idiot.” iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iii TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABELS ........................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ x CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................ 2 Segregation by Sex ................................................................................................. 3 The Need for Research............................................................................................ 4 Research Questions and Hypotheses ...................................................................... 5 Definitions of Terms ............................................................................................... 8 Scope of the Study ................................................................................................ 15 Delimitations ......................................................................................................... 16 Limitations ............................................................................................................ 21 Assumptions .......................................................................................................... 21 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ........................................................................................... 24 Part I: Innate Differences in Biology and Sex Differentiation ............................. 25 Early Human Development....................................................................... 25 Disorders of Sex Development ................................................................. 26 Prepubescent Sex Differences................................................................... 28 Anthropometric Differences Following the Onset of Puberty .................. 30 Genetics Versus Training .......................................................................... 36 Strength and Power Development Differences ......................................... 36 Testosterone Differences .......................................................................... 38 Post-Pubescent Athletic Performance Differences ................................... 43 Summary of Sex Differences .................................................................... 46 Part II: Title IX and American Sport .................................................................... 46 Historical Review of Title IX ................................................................... 46 v The Sports Exception to Title IX .............................................................. 53 Part III: Transgender Developments in America .................................................. 53 Transgender Basics and Population Estimates ......................................... 53 Competing Gender Worldviews ............................................................... 54 Key Transgender Developments in American Culture ............................. 57 Key Transgender Developments in Sports ............................................... 58 Key Transgender Developments in Law ................................................... 62 Emerging Conflict Regarding Transgender Policies ................................ 65 Part IV: Aspects of Transgender Sport Policy ...................................................... 66 Fairness ..................................................................................................... 66 The Mission of Sports Institutions: Competition Versus Inclusion .......... 66 Transgender Sports Policies ...................................................................... 71 Part VI: History, Theory, and Use of Monte Carlo Simulations .......................... 76 Summary of the Literature .................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 80 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 80 Selection of Subjects ............................................................................................. 82 Instrumentation ..................................................................................................... 82 Procedures ............................................................................................................. 83 Design and Preparation for Data Analysis ............................................................ 89 CHAPTER IV RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 94 Research Question 1 ............................................................................................. 95 Research Question 2 ........................................................................................... 114 Research Question 3 ........................................................................................... 116 CHAPTER V CONCLUSION, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 120 Conclusions ........................................................................................................