An Initial Test of an Intervention Designed to Help Youth Question Negative Ethnic Stereotypes by Violet Saad Souweidane A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Social Work and Psychology) in The University of Michigan 2012 Doctoral Committee: Professor Daniel G. Saunders, Co-Chair Professor L. Rowell Huesmann, Co-Chair Professor Eric F. Dubow Professor Michael Spencer Copyright Violet Saad Souweidane 2012 To the memory of my grandmothers Hajji Fatmeh and Hajji Mariam, both strong, independent, loving women whose compassion for humanity guides my life. ii Acknowledgements This dissertation was made possible by the support and guidance of many people. First of all, I would like to thank my committee members whose insight and encouragement throughout this process made my project possible. I am appreciative of the advice and direction Professor Michael Spencer offered not only with my dissertation but also with my master’s thesis. Professor Eric Dubow has not only been a tremendous resource in helping me to analyze my data and to help in organizing my thoughts, but his friendship has been a source of calm throughout this process. Professor Dan Saunders has been my rock since the beginning of my graduate career. He has inspired, directed, motivated and challenged my thinking every step of the way. I can never express the immense gratitude I feel for having Professor Dan Saunders as my mentor. Regardless of his numerous commitments and travels, Professor Saunders has been available and eager to help. I am so fortunate. Professor Rowell Huesmann is my mentor, collaborator, and friend who provided me with the opportunity to pursue my research interests and who supported my interests every step of the way. Professor Huesmann’s energy, disciplined scientific approach to research and his dedication to the field has been a model and inspiration for my work. Words can’t express my heartfelt appreciation for my dear friend, Rowell. I would also like to thank Carla Herrera and Cathy Smith. My graduate experience has been enriched by Carla’s friendship and her willingness to offer feedback on my work. iii I thank Cathy, who provided thoughtful and creative input on my dissertation and who at a moment’s notice was willing to spend hours with me on data analysis. I have learned much from her impressive statistical skills and I have been fortunate to gain her friendship. Last, but certainly not least, I want to thank my family. I thank my kids, Mariam, Naseeb, Sara, and Zain whose excitement for my work allowed me to pursue my academic goals relatively guilt free. I want to thank my husband and best friend, Ron. Ron’s encouragement, love and support helped me through the more difficult periods. Truly, I am a lucky woman! iv Table of Contents Dedication…………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements...…………………………………………………………….iii List of Figures…………………………………………………………………….vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………………….vii List of Appendices………………………………………………………………viii Abstract……………………………………………………………………….......ix Chapter 1. Introduction and Literature Review…………………………………….1 Stereotypes, social identity and ethnic prejudice………………….5 Ethnically motivated violence……………………………………..7 Stereotypes and prejudice faced by Arabs and Jews……………...9 Social learning approach…………………………………………14 Media’s effect of youth’s development of aggression and ethnic stereotypes………………………………………………..16 Media impact on ethnic stereotypes……………………………...19 Buffering Variables………………………………………………22 Intervention to reduce ethnic stereotyping……………………….32 The present study………………………………………………...41 Intervention outline………………………………………………42 Specific Aims…………………………………………………….44 Part A Hypotheses………………………………………………..44 Part B Hypotheses………………………………………………..45 2. Methods………………………………………………………………..48 Sample……………………………………………………………49 Procedure………………………………………………………...53 Analysis…………………………………………………………..68 3. Results…………………………………………………………………72 Descriptive analysis……………………………………………...72 Testing Part A Hypotheses……………………………………….77 Testing Part B Hypotheses……………………………………...86 Exploratory gender analyses……………………………………107 4. Discussion……………………………………………………………110 Part A hypotheses………………………………………………110 Part B hypotheses……………………………………………….114 Test of conceptual model……………………………………….120 Limitations……………………………………………………...120 Conclusion……………………………………………………...122 Appendices……………………………………………………………………...126 References………………………………………………………………………146 v List of Figures Figure 1. External and internal risk factors impacting ethnic stereotypes and ethnic aggressive beliefs………………………………………………………….4 2. Significant one-tailed correlations between internal and external risk factors and both aggressive beliefs toward out group members and negative implicit and explicit stereotypes towards out group members…………...85 3. Complex thinking main effect for role………………………………………...87 4. Empathy for out group time X condition X role interaction…………………..90 5. Implicit prejudice condition X role interaction………………………………..93 6. Agreement with negative stereotypes condition X role interaction…………...94 7. Response to negative stereotypes condition X role interaction……………….95 8. Empathy for out group time X ethnicity interaction…………………………..97 9. Empathy for own group main effect for time…………………………………98 10. Implicit prejudice overall…………………………………………………..102 11. Implicit prejudice main effect for time in gender…………………………..102 12. Implicit prejudice main effect for time in role……………………………...103 13. Ethnic experiences and practices time X condition X ethnicity interaction..105 14. Youth’s support of negative ethnic stereotypes ethnicity main effect……...106 15. Negative stereotypes for the out group ethnicity main effect………………107 16. Beliefs about aggression main effect for gender……………………………108 17. Approval of negative stereotypes time X gender interaction……………….109 18. Response to negative stereotypes time X gender interaction……………….109 vi List of Tables Table 1. Main ingredients of constructs targeted………………………………………...3 2. Intervention participants by school, gender and role………………………….51 3. Sequence of experiment for all groups………………………………………..52 4. Variables and corresponding measures relating to negative ethnic attitudes and beliefs…………………………………………………………………….57 5. Ethnic identity reliabilities…………………………………………………….59 6. Stereotype reliabilities………………………………………………………...61 7. Vignette reliabilities…………………………………………………………...62 8. Exposure to media reliabilities………………………………………………...63 9. Beliefs about aggression reliabilities………………………………………….64 10. Empathy reliabilities…………………………………………………………65 11. Critical thinking reliabilities…………………………………………………66 12. Demographic variables: frequencies and percentages……………………….73 13. Demographic differences between schools…………………………………..75 14. Demographic differences between immediate intervention group and delayed intervention group………………………………………………………..76 15. Correlations at baseline among ethnic identity, stereotyping, prejudice, exposure to ethnic conflict in the media and normative beliefs approving of aggression……………………………………………………………81 16. Correlations among ethnic identity, empathy, stereotyping, prejudice and normative beliefs approving of aggression by ethnicity…………………83 17. Correlations among ethnic identity, exposure to violent conflict in the media and normative beliefs approving of ethnic aggression by gender………..84 18. Overall means by condition at time 1 and time 2……………………………88 19. Means by condition and role at time 1 and time 2…………………………...89 20. Overall means at pre-test and post-test………………………………………99 21. Means by ethnicity at pre-test and post-test………………………………...100 vii List of Appendices Appendix A. Description and interpretation of variable constructs……………………….127 B. Reliability of scale items for scales dependent upon specified ethnicity……128 C. Intervention Outline…………………………………………………………129 D. Percentage distribution of school differences for study groups……………..139 E. Percentage distribution of gender differences for experimental groups and School…………………………………………………………………..139 F. Percentage distribution of grade differences for study groups school and role………………………………………………………….140 G. Percentage distribution of ethnic differences for condition study groups and school………………………………………………...141 H. Percentage Distribution of religious differences for condition experimental groups school and role……………………..142 I. Percentage distribution of generation differences for experimental groups and school…………………………………….143 J. School mean differences for age and parents’ average education……………143 K. Repeated measures ANOVA analysis of time X condition effects at time 1 and time 2……………………………………………………..144 L. Repeated measures ANOVA analysis of time X condition X role between subject effects at time 1 and time 2…………………………...145 viii Abstract The present study tested a social cognitive-ecological model to gain an understanding of factors that influence negative ethnic stereotypes and aggressive beliefs toward outside groups. The first goal of this study was to explore how differences in cognition (empathy, perspective taking, social identity, critical thinking) relate to ethnic prejudice and out-group aggressive beliefs. The hypotheses for this goal were that empathy for an out group would relate negatively to ethnic prejudice, negative ethnic stereotypes and aggressive beliefs toward outside groups. Also, it was hypothesized that negative ethnic stereotypes and aggressive beliefs would relate positively to strong ethnic identity and to television