Who Cares about Genocide in Europe? Identity-Related Reactions to Interventions and the Srebrenica Massacre in French, German, Dutch and American Newspapers Dissertation vorgelegt von Jana Katharina Grabowsky 33A Rathay Street AU-Victoria Park WA 6100 [email protected] Fachbereich Politik- und Sozialwissenschaften Otto-Suhr-Institut für Politikwissenschaft Freie Universität Berlin 1. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Thomas Risse 2. Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Thomas Diez Mündliche Prüfung: 11. Juli 2011 i Isque habitus animorum fuit ut pessimum facinus auderent pauci plures vellent omnes paterentur. Tacitus Historiae I 28 ii Contents Introduction 1 I Theoretical and Conceptual Foundations 12 1 Identity, Values and Memory 13 1.1 Collective Identity . 14 1.1.1 Social and Collective Identity . 14 1.1.2 Imagined Communities . 16 1.1.3 Summary and Hypothesis . 19 1.2 Value-Based Identity . 20 1.2.1 Values . 20 1.2.2 Values as Changing and Fixed Concept . 22 1.2.3 Summary and Hypothesis . 24 1.3 Collective Memory . 25 1.3.1 Memory and Identity . 25 1.3.2 Collective Trauma . 29 1.3.3 Self-Reflexive Identity . 31 1.3.4 Summary and Hypothesis . 33 1.4 European Identity . 34 1.4.1 Postnational, Transnational and Supranational . 34 1.4.2 Europe, the EU and the West . 38 1.4.3 European Values and Memory . 40 1.4.4 Summary and Hypothesis . 42 1.5 Political Ideologies . 43 1.5.1 Ideology and Cleavages . 43 1.5.2 Liberal-Left and Conservatism . 44 1.5.3 Summary and Hypothesis . 45 1.6 Public Sphere . 45 1.6.1 The Public Sphere and Collective Identity . 45 iii 1.6.2 Relation to Nationalism, Memory and Europe . 48 1.6.3 Newspapers . 49 1.6.4 Summary . 51 2 Choosing the Cases for Analysis and Measuring Identity 52 2.1 Country Selection . 52 2.1.1 France . 53 2.1.2 Germany . 55 2.1.3 Netherlands . 57 2.1.4 United States . 59 2.1.5 Newspapers . 62 2.2 1990 to 2006: Interventions and Genocides . 63 2.2.1 Interventions . 63 2.2.2 Genocides . 66 2.3 Data Collection and Sampling . 68 2.4 Methods . 70 2.4.1 Content Analysis and Frames . 70 2.4.2 Corpus-Linguistics . 73 2.5 Operationalization . 74 2.5.1 Bosnia in Context . 74 2.5.2 Focus on Srebrenica . 78 2.5.3 Srebrenica in Collective Memory . 80 II Empirical Results 81 3 Bosnia in the Context of Military Interventions 82 3.1 Bosnia in the Overall Debate on War and Intervention . 82 3.1.1 Actors in Major Crises . 84 3.1.2 Understanding of Major Crises . 89 3.1.3 Cross-References among Major Crises . 95 3.2 The Yugoslav Wars in the Intervention Debate . 98 3.2.1 Identity Framing in the Intervention Debate . 102 3.3 Checking Hypotheses on the Intervention Debate . 111 3.3.1 National Participation . 113 3.3.2 Character of Conflict . 117 3.3.3 Geographic Proximity . 124 3.3.4 Ideological Orientation of Newspapers . 129 3.4 Summary . 130 iv 4 Focus on Srebrenica 134 4.1 War in Yugoslavia and Genocide in Srebrenica . 135 4.2 Comparing Srebrenica . 139 4.2.1 Srebrenica in the Overall Debate on War and Intervention . 139 4.2.2 Srebrenica in the Intervention Debate . 144 4.3 The Srebrenica Debate . 145 4.3.1 Understanding of Events . 149 4.3.2 Identity in the Srebrenica Debate . 159 4.3.3 Explicit Identity Frames in the Srebrenica Debate . 169 4.3.4 Values in the Srebrenica Debate . 172 4.3.5 Memory in the Srebrenica Debate . 179 4.3.6 Failure and Shame . 187 4.4 Summary . 192 5 Srebrenica in Collective Memory 195 5.1 Context and Content of Srebrenica in Collective Memory . 195 5.2 Srebrenica Mentioned with Other Wars . 198 5.3 Srebrenica Traveling . 201 5.4 Srebrenica as a Symbol . 203 5.5 Srebrenica as a Historic Event . 204 5.6 Summary . 207 Conclusions 208 Theoretical Departures and Methods Used . 209 Empirical Findings Evaluated . 212 Implications . 219 Bibliography 224 Appendix 246 v List of Figures 1.1 The relation of different collective identities. 37 2.1 The three debates analyzed . 69 3.1 Actors associated with Bosnia . 85 3.2 Actors associated with Rwanda . 86 3.3 Actors associated with Somalia . 87 3.4 Actors associated with Iraq . 87 3.5 Events associated with Haiti . 90 3.6 Events associated with Rwanda . 91 3.7 Events associated with Afghanistan . 92 3.8 Events associated with Bosnia . 93 3.9 Events associated with Kosovo . 94 3.10 Cross-references between crises in French newspapers . 95 3.11 Cross-references between crises in German newspapers . 96 3.12 Cross-references between crises in Dutch newspapers . 96 3.13 Cross-references between crises in US newspapers . 97 3.14 Issue cycle for ten major crisis regions . 99 3.15 Share of articles coded on the Yugoslav wars and crises . 101 3.16 Share of articles coded on the ten major crisis regions . 102 3.17 Communities of identity in the intervention debate . 105 3.18 Identity and the three major crisis regions . 107 3.19 Countries’ own national identities and the three major crisis regions . 108 3.20 National participation and identity . 114 3.21 Wider identity frame for national participation . 114 3.22 Communities of identity for degree of national participation . 116 3.23 Distribution of identity frames along character of conflict coded . 118 3.24 Coded character of conflict and identity . 119 3.25 Character of conflict and identity . 120 3.26 Wider identity frame for attributed characters of conflict . 122 3.27 Communities of identity for attributed characters of conflict . 122 vi 3.28 Geographic proximity and identity . 124 3.29 Distribution of identity frames along geographic regions . 125 3.30 Wider identity frame for geographic regions . 126 3.31 Communities of identity for geographic regions . 127 3.32 Geographic proximity and identity . 130 3.33 Identity frames for ideological orientation of newspapers . 131 4.1 Actors associated with Srebrenica . 141 4.2 Events associated with Srebrenica . 143 4.3 Geographic proximity and identity . 145 4.4 Timeline of Srebrenica articles . 147 4.5 Main focus of Srebrenica debate . 148 4.6 Main actors in Srebrenica debate . 150 4.7 Actors in Srebrenica debate . 151 4.8 Interpretations of the Yugoslav wars . 153 4.9 Interpretation of the Yugoslav wars across time . 154 4.10 Interpretations of events in Srebrenica . 156 4.11 Genocide framing . 157 4.12 Humanitarian crisis and human rights violations in Srebrenica debate . 159 4.13 Timeline of all countries’ multiple identities in the Srebrenica debate . 162 4.14 Identity share by focus in the Srebrenica debate . 163 4.15 Communities of identity in the Srebrenica debate . 165 4.16 Location of the Yugoslav region . 166 4.17 Communities of reference for explicit identity in the Srebrenica debate . 170 4.18 Explaining explicit multiple identity references . 171 4.19 Values in the Srebrenica debate by newspaper . ..