ECONOMIC MOBILITY AND THE TRANSNATIONAL PRACTICES OF WEST AFRICANS IN CATALONIA, SPAIN By ERMITTE ST. JACQUES A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2009 1 © 2009 Ermitte St. Jacques 2 To Wendell A. Narcisse 3 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am greatly indebted to Anita Spring for her unwavering support and commitment throughout the process of my graduate education and professional development. I am truly grateful to Christopher McCarty for exposing me to social networks analysis, which has taken my research in a new direction. I also appreciate the support and feedback that Abdoulaye Kane and Leonardo Villalón have given me on my dissertation. I am also indebted to Helen Safa, who has guided me through this process. I cannot count how many times she has invited me to dinner at her house. I thank Russell Bernard for teaching me about research design and methods, particularly the importance of the research question. I appreciate the assistance of Sue Boinski in writing my dissertation proposal. With the help of Russ and Sue, I received a Doctoral Dissertation Research Improvement Grant from the National Science Foundation to fund my project. I thank Maxine Margolis for introducing me to transnational migration and shaping my formation as a migration scholar. I am also grateful to Brenda Chalfin for all her efforts to help me write and to Willie Baber for the wonderful discussions over lunch. I am thankful to Kenneth Sassaman for assisting me through a difficult moment at UF. I also thank the staff of the Anthropology department, Karen Jones, Patricia Gaither King and Juanita Bagnall, and the Graduate School, Kathy Carroll, Lisa De LaCure and Teresa Greer for all support work done on my behalf. This study came about over a cup of coffee with José Luis Molina when he visited the University of Florida in 2002. Without his invitation to come and study Africans in Catalonia, this study would not have occurred. I am grateful for the guidance and support that José Luis provided me during my fieldwork. I also thank his colleagues in the Departament d’Antropologia Social i Cultural at the Universitat Autòmoma de Barcelona, Verena Stolcke and Adriana Kaplan. Although Adriana was busy traveling between Gambia and Spain during my fieldwork, 4 she took time out to discuss insights from her research on Senegambian migration to Catalonia with me. Her research has greatly informed this study. Verena gave me valuable advice in the first weeks of my fieldwork and lent me several books that have been helpful to my research. I am appreciative of the friendship and collegiality that Laura Rota, Laura Hom and Claudia Aguilar offered me. I am indebted to Ferran Moreno who was the director of Centre Sant Pau during fieldwork. Ferran permitted me to volunteer at the center, which facilitated my entry into the Senegambian Community. And all the assistance he gave me. I appreciate the assistance that I received from Josep Palacios, the commissioner for the Plan of the New Citizen in the city council of Mataró, and Saoka Kingolo Luzolo, the responsible for the office of the Secretary for Immigration in the Generalitat de Catalunya. Both Josep and Saoka provided me with statistical data on immigration to Mataró and explained recent trends. The contributions of my interpreter, Augustin Senghor, to this study are immeasurable. I am grateful to Eva Cham who works as a cultural mediator for the city council of Mataró and is a founding member of Musu Kafo. Eva took time out of her busy schedule to discuss gender issues with me. She put me in contact with other Gambian women, who shared their migration experiences with me. I am also grateful to Sheriffo Jarju Sagnia of Jama Kafo, who shared his immigration story with me and introduced me to other members of the association. This study would not have been possible without the cooperation of the Senegambian community of Mataró. Many people welcomed me into their homes and offered me their friendship and stories. My friends have been a support system during my graduate education. Sybil Rosado and I spent late nights discussing research and formulating our ideas. Debra Rodman and Rosana Resende have been my migration buddies. Our stimulating conversations have shaped this study 5 and my perspectives on migration. Antoinette Jackson, Roos Willems and Denise Yates have been big sisters, giving me direction and guidance. Deogracia Cornelio has kept me grounded throughout graduate school, reminding of the world beyond academia. I have been blessed with a supportive family that has been my rock throughout my endeavors. My mother, Ella St. Jacques, has encouraged me throughout my education providing me with both emotional and financial support. My father, Celse St. Jacques, has bolstered me with his pride. My sisters, brothers, nieces and nephews have been my fan base. I thank them all for all their support. I thank my cousin Claude for all the advice he has given me. The position of number one cheerleader goes to my husband, Flemming Daugaard-Hansen. He always has words of encouragement and sees my potential even when I cannot. I also thank my mother-in-law, Merethe Daugaard-Hansen for all her support and love. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 LIST OF TABLES .........................................................................................................................10 LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................11 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................12 ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................13 CHAPTER 1 OCCUPATIONAL STATUS AND TRANSNATIONAL PRACTICES ..............................15 Introduction .............................................................................................................................15 Recent Studies of Senegalese Transnational Migration .........................................................16 Bridging Integration and Transnationalism ............................................................................23 Outline of Chapters .................................................................................................................32 2 THEORIZING THE TRANSNATIONAL PRACTICES OF SENEGAMBIANS ................36 Introduction .............................................................................................................................36 Definitions and Interpretations of Transnationalism ..............................................................36 Interpreting Transnational Ties as Extensions of Urban-Rural Linkages ..............................39 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................48 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ..................................................................50 Introduction .............................................................................................................................50 Research Objectives ................................................................................................................50 Operationalization of Transnationalism .................................................................................51 Operationalization of Economic Integration ..........................................................................55 Gender Matters .......................................................................................................................56 Ethnographic Methods ............................................................................................................57 Entry into the Senegambian Community of Mataró ...............................................................60 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................63 4 RECENT MIGRATION TO SPAIN ......................................................................................66 Introduction .............................................................................................................................66 A Migration Makeover ...........................................................................................................66 The Foreign Resident Population in Spain .............................................................................68 Catalonia: An Internal and International Destination .............................................................77 Mataró: Field Site ...................................................................................................................82 7 Senegambian Migration to Mataró .........................................................................................84 Conclusion ..............................................................................................................................86 5 SEARCHING FOR A LIVELIHOOD: SENEGAMBIAN MIGRATION TO SPAIN .........87 Introduction .............................................................................................................................87