U.S. Fire Administration Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative FA-336/February 2014 U.S. Fire Administration Mission Statement We provide national leadership to foster a solid foundation for our fi re and emergency services stakeholders in prevention, preparedness, and response. Table of Contents Table of Contents . i Preface . .vii Chapter 1 — Introduction . 1. Early Efforts to Address This Issue . 1 Safe Operation of Tankers . 2 Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative . 2 Multiple Fire Service Association Projects . 3 Additional Research on Vehicle and Roadway Safety . 5 Traffic Incident Management Systems . 5 Technology and Incident Reporting Research . 5 Emergency Vehicle Visibility and Lighting Research . 6 Other Government Initiatives for Roadway Safety . 7 National Traffic Incident Management Coalition . 7 Federal Highway Administration Traffic Incident Management Website . 8 Federal Highway Administration “Traffic Incident Management Handbook” . 8 “Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices” . 8 About This Report . 11. Chapter 2 — Statistics and Case Studies . 13 Introduction . 13 Limitations . 13 Fire Department Statistics . 13 Injuries Responding To and From an Alarm . .13 Cause and Location of Incidents Resulting in Injuries . .13 Firefighter Fatalities . 16 Law Enforcement Statistics . 17 Injuries and Cause . 17. Fatalities . 18. Emergency Medical Services Statistics . 19 Injuries . 20 Fatalities . 20 Case Studies . 21 Firefighter Fatalities . 21. Law Enforcement Officer Fatalities . 26. Chapter 3 — Common Crash Causes and Their Prevention . 33. Intersections . 33 i Excessive Speed . 35 Keeping the Vehicle’s Wheels on the Road Surface . 37 Safely Negotiating Curves . 38 Passing Other Vehicles Safely . 39 Vehicle Unfamiliarity . 40 Driving in Inclement Weather . 42 Avoiding and Combating Skids . 44 Safe Vehicle Spacing . 45. Vehicle Backing Operations . 46 Driver Distractions . 47 Siren Syndrome . 48 Fatigue . 48 Seatbelt Usage . 49 Summary . 50 Chapter 4 — The Impact of Vehicle Design and Maintenance on Safety . 53 Introduction . 53 Vehicle Design . 53 Fire Apparatus . 53 Law Enforcement Vehicles . 53 Ambulances . 54 Restraints . 55 Loose Equipment Storage . 56 Emergency Vehicle Lighting . 58 Warning Light Colors . 58 Red Lights . 58 Amber Lights ...................................................... 59 White Lights ...................................................... 59 Green Lights....................................................... 59 Blue Lights........................................................ 60 Types of Warning Lights . 60 Rotating Lights ..................................................... 60 Fixed Flashing Lights ..................................................61 Strobe Lights .......................................................61 Light-emitting Diode Lighting ............................................61 Other Types of Warning Lights .......................................... 62 Available Research on Emergency Vehicle Lighting . 63 ii Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative Phoenix Fire Department Study . 63 Loughborough University Study . 63 Flash Rate ........................................................ 64 Light Color ....................................................... 64 Hazards to Motorists ................................................. 64 Arizona Blue Ribbon Panel Study and Report . 65 Light Output ...................................................... 65 Light Color ....................................................... 65 Flash Rates ....................................................... 65 Ramp Times....................................................... 66 Florida Highway Patrol Study . 66 Light Color ....................................................... 66 Flash Rate and Pattern ................................................ 66 U .S . Fire Administration/Federal Emergency Management Agency Sponsored Research . 66 Conspicuity . 70 Retroreflectivity . 70 Factors Affecting Visibility and Recognition . 70 Contrast . 71 Fluorescent Colors . 71 Research Findings Related to Conspicuity . 71 Contour Markings . 71 Placement . 71 Fluorescent Colors . 72 Efficiency . 72 Standards Related to Emergency Vehicle Visibility and Conspicuity . 72 Fire Standards . 72 Law Enforcement Standards . 73 Emergency Medical Services Ambulance Standards . 73 Vehicle Inspection and Maintenance . 74 Routine Inspection and Maintenance . 74 Removing a Vehicle From Service . 74 Summary . 75 References . 75 Chapter 5 — Improving Response-related Safety: Internal Factors . 77. Introduction . 77 Agency Vehicle Response Policies . 77 Standard Operating Procedures . 77 Prioritizing Dispatch . 77 Response Matrix . 78 Alternative Response Policies for Fire Departments . 78 Alternative Response Policies for Emergency Medical Services . 80 Alternative Response Policies for Law Enforcement Agencies . 80 iii Training . 82 Training Requirements . 82 Identifying the Need for Additional Training . 84 Training Program Components . 85 Available Training Programs and Resources . 86 Emergency Vehicle Occupant Safety . 86 Responsibilities of the Driver . 86 Safety Inspection .................................................... 87 Seatbelt Usage in Fire Apparatus .......................................... 87 Responsibilities of the Company/Lead Officer . 87. Responsibilities of the Passenger . 88 Department/Agency Responsibilities . 89 Personal Responsibilities . 90 Summary . 91 Chapter 6 — Improving Response-related Safety: External Factors . 93 Introduction . 93 DOT Intelligent Transportation Systems Program . 93 Traffic Surveillance Technology . 94 Mayday and Automatic Collision Notification Systems . 94 Intelligent Vehicles . 95. Freeway Service Patrols . 95. Next Generation 9-1-1 . .95 Dynamic (Changeable) Message Signs . 97. Traffic Signal Pre-emption Systems . 98 Implementation . 98 Vehicular Device Types . 99 Acoustic ......................................................... 99 Line-of-sight ...................................................... 99 Global Positioning System . 100. Localized Radio Signal ................................................100 Traffic Management Centers . 101 Closed Circuit Television Camera Surveillance .................................101 Roadway Weather Information System......................................101 Reversible Lane Systems................................................101 Dynamic Message Signs ...............................................101 Safe Operation of Privately Owned Vehicles ...................................102 Summary . 104 Chapter 7 — Regulating Emergency Vehicle Response and Roadway Scene Safety . 105 Introduction . 105 National Fire Protection Association Standards . 105 NFPA 1002, Standard for Fire Apparatus Driver/Operator Professional Qualifications..........105 iv Emergency Vehicle Safety Initiative NFPA 1091, Standard for Traffic Control Incident Management Professional Qualifications ......106 NFPA 1451, Standard for a Fire and Emergency Services Vehicle Operations Training Program . .107 NFPA 1500, Standard on Fire Department Occupational Safety and Health Program . .109 NFPA 1917, Standard for Automotive Ambulances ................................112 DOT “Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices” . .112 Temporary Traffic Control Zones . .112 Advanced Warning Area ...............................................113 Transition Area.....................................................113 Activity Area ......................................................114 Termination Area ...................................................114 Channelizing Devices . 114 Signs ...........................................................114 Cones ...........................................................115 Flares . ..