AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS' PERCEPTIONS OF PRIVACY AND MOBILE PHONE LOCATION DATA: A GROUNDED THEORY STUDY ANDREA GORRA A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of Leeds Metropolitan University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy April 2007 Abstract Abstract The mobile phone is a ubiquitous tool in today’s society, a daily companion for the majority of British citizens. The ability to trace a mobile phone’s geographic position at all times via mobile phone networks generates potentially sensitive data that can be stored and shared for significant lengths of time, particularly for the purpose of crime and terrorism investigations. This thesis examines the implications of the storage and use of mobile phone location data on individuals’ perceptions of privacy. The grounded theory methodology has been used to illustrate patterns and themes that are useful in understanding the broader discourses concerning location data relating to privacy, technology and policy-setting. The main contribution of this thesis is the development of a substantive theory grounded in empirical data from interviews, mobile phone location tracking and a survey. This theory is specific to a particular area, as it maps the relationship between mobile phone location data and perceptions of privacy within the UK. The theory confirms some arguments in the literature that argue that the concept of privacy is changing with individuals' increased dependence on electronic communications technologies in day-to-day life. However, whilst individuals tend to hold a rather traditional picture of privacy, not influenced by technology and solely related to their own personal lives, scholars paint a picture of privacy that is affected by technology and relates to society as a whole. Digital mass data collections, such as communications data retention, are not perceived as privacy invasive by individuals. Mobile phone location data is not seen as related to a citizen's daily life but instead primarily as a crime investigation tool. A recognition and understanding of the divergence between the perceptions and definitions of privacy between individuals and the academic literature in relation to mobile phone location data is of relevance, as it should impact on future policies regulating the gathering, storage and analysis of personal data. ii Candidate’s Declaration I confirm that the thesis is my own work; and that all published or other sources of material consulted have been acknowledged in notes to the text or the bibliography. I confirm that the thesis has not been submitted for a comparable academic award. ………………………………………………………. iii List of Contents List of contents Abstract .............................................................................................................ii List of contents ........................................................................................................iv List of Figures, Tables and Memos ..........................................................................x Acknowledgements ...............................................................................................xiii Glossary ...........................................................................................................xiv Chapter 1 Introduction........................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background to the study ..............................................................................1 1.2 Research rationale .......................................................................................6 1.3 Aims and objectives .....................................................................................8 1.4 Methodology overview ...............................................................................10 1.5 List of publications......................................................................................11 1.6 Guide to subsequent chapters ...................................................................13 Chapter 2 Literature review: Privacy, Mobile phone technology and Legal framework...................................................................................................... 14 2.1 Part 1: Mobile phone location data.........................................................15 2.1.1 Background to mobile phone location data ........................................... 15 2.1.1.1 History of mobile phone telephony ................................................ 16 2.1.1.2 The cellular concept....................................................................... 19 2.1.1.3 Increasing the capacity of a mobile phone network....................... 21 2.1.1.4 Health concerns in mobile telephony............................................. 22 2.1.2 Technical overview of mobile communications support ........................ 23 2.1.2.1 Overview of the cellular network architecture................................ 23 2.1.2.2 Steps in making a mobile phone call ............................................. 26 2.1.3 Mobile location-based services (LBS) ................................................... 27 2.1.3.1 Location-enhanced emergency call services................................. 29 2.1.4 Different methods for locating a mobile phone ...................................... 30 2.1.4.1 Network-based mobile phone positioning...................................... 31 2.1.4.2 Satellite-based mobile phone positioning ...................................... 34 2.1.5 Summary Part 1..................................................................................... 36 2.2 Part 2: Privacy ..........................................................................................37 2.2.1 Setting the scene................................................................................... 37 2.2.2 Privacy categories ................................................................................. 39 2.2.3 Legal dimensions of privacy .................................................................. 43 2.2.3.1 Protecting Human Rights............................................................... 44 2.2.3.2 European data protection law........................................................ 46 2.2.4 Impact of technologies on the concept of privacy.................................. 48 2.2.5 Surveillance society - Threats to privacy by digital data collections ...... 50 2.2.5.1 Digital technologies changing the concept of surveillance: new versus traditional surveillance ....................................................... 51 iv List of Contents 2.2.5.2 Data shadows of individuals and implications of ‘dataveillance’ for society ........................................................................................... 53 2.2.6 Privacy enhancing and invading technologies....................................... 55 2.2.7 Mobile phone location data and privacy ................................................ 56 2.2.8 Summary Part 2..................................................................................... 58 2.3 Part 3: Legal framework relevant to mobile phone location data........59 2.3.1 Definitions of mobile phone communications data ................................ 59 2.3.2 Background to communications data retention ..................................... 62 2.3.3 Legislative developments regarding communications data in the UK ... 65 2.3.3.1 Regulation of Investigatory Powers Act 2000 (RIP Act) ................ 66 2.3.3.2 Anti-Terrorism Crime and Security Act 2001 (ATCSA).................. 70 2.3.4 European Data Retention Directive (2006/24/EC)................................. 75 2.3.5 Discussion about the rightfulness of communications data retention.... 79 2.3.5.1 Argument 1: Objection on the ground of human rights and civil liberties .......................................................................................... 79 2.3.5.2 Argument 2: Data preservation instead of retention ...................... 81 2.3.5.3 Argument 3: No definite link between communications device and user ............................................................................................... 82 2.3.5.4 Argument 4: High cost of storage and retrieval of data ................. 82 2.3.5.5 Argument 5: Potential use of data for other purposes ................... 83 2.3.6 Synopsis of data retention discussion ................................................... 84 2.3.7 Summary Part 3..................................................................................... 84 2.4 Chapter summary and conclusions .......................................................85 Chapter 3 Research Methodology ....................................................................86 3.1 Grounded theory methodology - an overview.......................................86 3.1.1 Data collection and analysis in grounded theory ................................... 87 3.1.1.1 Coding interviews as part of the analytic process.......................... 88 3.1.1.2 Developing categories ................................................................... 89 3.1.2 Use of grounded theory methodology for this study .............................. 90 3.1.3 Substantive and formal theory............................................................... 92 3.1.4 Memo writing ......................................................................................... 92 3.1.5 Criteria for grounded theory studies ...................................................... 93 3.1.6 Objectivist and