Rural Landscape Change: Landscape Practices, Values and Meanings The Case of Jagatpur VDC, Chitwan Nepal By By Dal Prasad Pun Master of Philosophy in Social Change Department of Geography Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim, Norway May, 2004 Rural Landscape Change: Landscape Practices, Values and Meanings The Case of Jagatpur VDC, Chitwan Nepal By Dal Prasad Pun Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Master of Philosophy in Social Change Department of Geography Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU) Trondheim, Norway May, 2004 Abstract In Nepal the nature conservation practices started during 1970s and the establishment of the Royal Chitwan National Park laid the foundation stone. Though the nature conservation practices in Nepal have undergone changes to date, from purely protective to participatory conservation at the landscape level, the rural people around the conservation areas in general have faced complicated problems due to the restriction on the use of natural resources and the encroachment and threat of wild animals on their agricultural fields, human lives and domestic animals. In this context the present study explores rural landscape change in Jagatpur VDC after the implementation of the Royal Chitwan National Park. The main focus of this study was to look at how the rural landscape practices and the landscape values and meanings have changed over time and space, changing the rural landscape. The subjects were the traditional people and the migrants who were purposively selected using snowball sampling. Data triangulation i.e. structured open ended interviews, informal conversational interviews, observation and photography, were applied to collect the qualitative information. The study shows that rural landscape, as an objective as well as subjective expression of the human cultures on the surface of the earth, has undergone considerable changes after the implementation of the Royal Chitwan National Park. The majority of the farmers have negative attitudes towards these changes. The study reveals that rural landscape practices are interrelated and have undergone changes with varying intensity, which has resulted in changing relationships between human beings and landscape with changing resource utilization. The study shows changes in landscape values and meanings with varying socio- spatial dimensions. It also reveals that landscape values and meanings are interrelated and have a close relationship with landscape practices determining the changes in rural landscape. The result emphasizes the importance of values and meanings to understand the intricate relationship between human beings and the landscape. Finally the study suggests the importance of the cultural landscape concept in the nature conservation practice in Nepal. i Table of Contents Abstract……………………………………………………….....……………......... i Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………... ii List of Tables……………………………………………………............................. vi List of Figures……………………………………………….................................... vii List of Plates…………………………………………………….............................. viii Chapter One: Introduction 1.1 Introduction………………………………………………............................ 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………........................... 2 1.3 Objectives……………………………………………………...................... 4 1.3.1 Research questions……………………………………..................... 4 1.4 Rationale of the study……………………………………………................ 4 1.5 Structure of the study…………………………………………………......... 5 Chapter Two: Theoretical framework 2.1 Introduction ………………………………………………........................... 8 2.2 Origin of the term landscape……………………………………………….. 9 2.3 Development of landscape in Geography…………..……………................ 10 2.4 Cultural landscape………………………………………………………….. 15 2.5 The cultural landscape concept in conservation and World Heritage............ 17 2.6 Values and meanings of landscape……………………………………........ 19 2.7 Concepts of place and space.…………………………………..................... 23 2.8 Theory of landscape study and landscape change……………..................... 26 2.8.1 Landscape change………………………………….......................... 27 2.8.1.1 Intentional-humanistic explanation (Phenomenology)…………….. 28 2.8.1.2 Functional analysis…………………………………………………. 29 2.8.1.3 Structural analysis and explanation……………………….……….. 29 2.9 Structuration theory………………………………………………………... 30 2.9.1 Structure and action………………………………………………... 30 ii Chapter Three: Methodology 3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 32 3.2 Research methodology………………………………………..………......... 32 3.3 Types of research methods……………………………………………......... 32 3.3.1 Qualitative research………………………………………………... 33 3.4 The purpose: a typology………………………………………………......... 34 3.5 Research design……………………………………………………………. 35 3.6 Nature of data and data production methods…………………..…………... 35 3.6.1 Methods of primary data production……………………………….. 36 3.6.1.1 Interviews…………………………………………………………... 36 3.6.1.1.1 Standardized open-ended interview.……………………......... 37 3.6.1.1.2 Informal conversational interview…………………………… 37 3.6.1.2 Observation ………………………………………………………... 38 3.6.1.3 Photographs………………………………………………………... 39 3.7 Secondary data……………………………………………………………... 39 3.7.1 Literary source and documents…………………………………….. 40 3.7.2 Spatial data……………………………………………………......... 40 3.8 Sampling …………………………………………………………………... 40 3.8.1 Purposeful sampling……………………………………………….. 41 3.8.2 Sample size……………………………………………………........ 42 3.8.3 Chain/snowball sampling………………………………………….. 43 3.9 Field experience………………………………………………………........ 45 3.10 Validity and reliability…………………………………………………….. 46 Chapter Four: Study area 4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 48 4.2 A brief introduction to Nepal and Chitwan valley……………………........ 48 4.3 Malaria eradication……………………………………………………........ 49 4.4 The Rapti Valley Development Project……………………………………. 49 4.5 Population growth in Chitwan……………………………………………... 50 4.6 Protected area in Nepal…………………………………………………….. 51 4.6.1 Implementation of the Royal Chitwan National Park……………… 51 4.6.2 Park and People Program (PPP)/Participatory Conservation Program (PCP)……………………………………………………... 52 iii 4.6.3 Terai Arc Landscape (TAL) conservation beyond the boundaries… 54 4.7 Jagatpur an overview……………………………………………................. 55 4.7.1 Jagatpur as gateway………………………………………………... 57 4.7.2 People of Jagatpur…………………………………………………. 58 4.7.3 Economic base…………………………………………..…………. 60 4.7.4 Distribution of settlement……………………………….…………. 61 4.7.5 The Kerunga User Committee (KUC)……………………………... 61 4.7.6 Community forest………………………………………………….. 62 Chapter Five: Rural Landscape Practices 5.1 Introduction...…………………………………………………………......... 64 5.2 Agriculture…………………………………………………..……............... 64 5.2.1 Traditional people in agriculture…………………………………… 65 5.2.2 Migrants in agriculture……………………………………………... 68 5.3 Animal husbandry………………………………………………………….. 72 5.3.1 Traditional people and animal husbandry………………………….. 73 5.3.2 Migrants and animal husbandry………………………………......... 74 5.4 Use of forest………………………………………………………………... 78 5.4.1 Forest and traditional people……………………………………….. 79 5.4.2 Early migrants and the forest………………………………………. 83 5.4.3 Late migrants and the forest………………………………………... 83 5.5 Fishing in Rapti River……………………………………….……………... 84 5.5.1 Traditional people and fishing……………………….…………….. 84 5.5.2 Rapti River and migrants…………………………………………... 86 5.6 Tourism…………………………………………….………..……………... 87 5.7 Conclusion………………………………………………….…………........ 90 Chapter Six: Landscape Values and Meanings 6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………… 91 6.2 Values and meanings associated with agricultural land …………………... 91 6.3 Values and meanings associated with the forest…………………………… 96 6.4 Values and meanings associated with Rapti River……………………........ 101 6.5 Changing landscape and changing space and place………………………... 103 6.6 Conclusion……………………………………………………….……........ 104 iv Chapter Seven: Conclusion 7.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………. 108 7.2 Future research possibilities…………………………………….………….. 111 References……………………………………………………………………......... 113 Appendix – I………………………………………………………………………. 124 v List of Tables Table 1: Three approaches to the study of landscape…………………………… 26 Table 2: Population change in Chitwan ……………………………………........ 50 Table 3: Households in Jagatpur operating small scale non-agricultural economic activity by type……………………………………………… 60 Table 4: Cropping calendar in wetland among traditional people………………. 67 Table 5: Cropping calendar in dryland among traditional people………………. 67 Table 6: Cropping calendar in wetland among migrants ……………………….. 70 Table 7: Cropping calendar in dryland among migrants………………………… 71 Table 8: Animal husbandry among traditional people: number of animals kept by different respondents………………………………………………... 74 Table 9: Animal husbandry among migrants (early migrants): number of animals kept by different respondents…………………………………. 77 Table 10: Demand and supply of forest products (tons) …………………………. 79 Table 11: Forest resources utilization calendar before and after the NP’s implementation………………………………………………………… 80 Table 12: Estimated population of rhinos in the RCNP…………………….......... 98 Table 13: Compensation from NP for animal-caused damage on human life……. 99 vi List of Figures Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of the morphology of the cultural landscape……………………………………………………………….. 16 Figure 2: Relationship between factors contributing to explanation of the cultural landscape …………………………………….…......................