Shaw, A. , & Charsley, K. A. H. (2006). Rishtas: adding emotion to strategy in understanding British Pakistani transnational marriages. Global Networks, 6(4), 405-421. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471- 0374.2006.00152.x Peer reviewed version Link to published version (if available): 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00152.x Link to publication record in Explore Bristol Research PDF-document This is the author accepted manuscript (AAM). The final published version (version of record) is available online via Wiley at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/wol1/doi/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00152.x/abstract. Please refer to any applicable terms of use of the publisher. University of Bristol - Explore Bristol Research General rights This document is made available in accordance with publisher policies. Please cite only the published version using the reference above. Full terms of use are available: http://www.bristol.ac.uk/red/research-policy/pure/user-guides/ebr-terms/ Rishtas: adding emotion to strategy in understanding British Pakistani transnational marriages Alison Shaw and Katharine Charsley Abstract The popularity of transnational marriages that in most cases involve first cousins or other kin distinguishes Pakistanis from other British South Asian groups. This article is concerned with explaining the popularity of such marriages. We seek to complement accounts that stress kinship obligations and socio-economic strategy, by showing that transnational marriages are also motivated by the emotional ties of kinship. Central to this analysis is a focus on the Urdu/Panjabi concept of rishta, which conveys ideas about a ‘good’ match and about emotional connections between people. Our attention to emotional discourse between siblings, between parents and children and between prospective spouses in the context of marriage arrangements augments the understanding of what is at stake for those involved in transnational marriages. Our analysis also complements accounts that emphasize parental exegesis by offering a multigenerational perspective. 1 Introduction The migration of spouses to the United Kingdom is a characteristically South Asian phenomenon, but Pakistan sends more marriage migrants than India and Bangladesh combined (Home Office 2001). In the year 2000, over ten thousand Pakistani nationals obtained entry clearance to join partners who are British citizens (Home Office 2001). The majority of these marriages are consanguineous (taking place between kin ‘of the same blood’), usually involving first or second cousins. Indeed, two small-scale studies and one national survey suggest that the proportion of consanguineous and particularly first cousin marriages among the children and grandchildren of pioneer-generation British Pakistanis has increased in comparison with their parents’ generation and with figures from Pakistan (Shaw 2001, 2000a; Darr and Modell 1988; Modood et al 1997:319). A striking feature of these consanguineous marriages is that they are transnational, involving a spouse usually from Pakistan or elsewhere in the Pakistani diaspora, such as the Middle East or the United States. This article extends the analysis of motivations for arranged consanguineous marriages in this transnational context. We seek to complement accounts that stress kinship obligations and socio-economic strategy, by showing that transnational marriages are also motivated by the emotional ties of kinship. Transnational marriage is a subject of recurrent concern to the British Pakistanis with whom we have worked. Marriage itself entails risks, particularly for a daughter who, in Pakistan, traditionally moves to her in-law’s household, where she is vulnerable to mistreatment by her husband or in-laws. Transnational marriage introduces a new range of social and emotional risks for those involved. It separates young people from their natal families (Charsley 2005), and it exposes British Pakistani women to the dangers of becoming ‘immigration widows’ whose husbands have been refused entry visas (Menski 2002) or of being abandoned by men whose commitment to the marriage extended no further than gaining entry to Britain and acquiring British citizenship (Werbner 2002).1 Marriages arranged within the family are viewed as a means of protecting one’s children against these potential harms. 2 Agaomst a background of such concerns, we suggest here that an exploration of emotional discourse as it relates to marriage arrangements illumines what is at stake for people arranging transnational marriages involving kin such as first cousins, and thus provides a fuller explanation for the continuing popularity of such marriages. We seek not to establish the site of emotion, or whether emotions are innate or culturally created, universal or cross-culturally variable (Lutz and White 1986, Lutz and Abu-Lughod 1990, Beatty 2005), but to show, also, how paying attention to emotional discourse can ‘reanimate[s] the sometimes robotic image of humans which social science has purveyed’ (Maschio 1998). As recent work on marriage in India suggests, rigid, unemotional models of marriage may have been an elite ‘invented tradition’, taken as social fact by European colonists and scholars (Parry 2001). More specifically, in our focus on emotion in transnational marriage arrangements, we highlight the positive sentiment of affection, in relationships between siblings, between parents and children, and also between prospective spouses. Our analysis offers an important corrective to recent research that highlights the abuse of the arranged marriage system in transnational contexts and UK media and policy-interest in the issue of forced marriage.2 A dominant image of transnational arranged first cousin marriage is that unsuitable matches are ‘forced’ upon unwilling young people in response to socio-economic, cultural and psychological pressure by parents from working class uneducated rural backgrounds, typically from Mirpur district in Azad Kashmir (eg. Mohammad 2005). Our fieldwork presents many counter-examples: the working class, rural-origin British Mirpuri father re-negotiating a planned rishta (match) in order to safeguard his daughter’s happiness; the city-origin, educated, middle-class British Panjabi parents arranging a rishta with a first cousin raised and educated in the United States. The British Pakistani population is heterogeneous in socio-economic status in Britain and origins in Pakistan. Transnational marriages involving consanguineous kin occur across all the main subgroups without corresponding in any simple way with social class in the UK or with parental regional or urban/rural origins in Pakistan (Shaw 2001). 3 Our case material reflects this diversity, being drawn from fieldwork conducted in different UK localities: in Bristol among mainly but not exclusively urban-origin Panjabis (Charsley 2003) and in Oxford, Leeds and High Wycombe among mainly but not exclusively rural origin Panjabis and Mirpuris (Shaw 2001a and 2003). In combining material from different fieldwork locations, we offer an analysis that challenges stereotypes and is not restricted in its explanatory power by social class or regional origins but reflects the diversity to be found within Britain’s Pakistani population. Rishtas: strategy and connection The starting point of our argument is our informants’ concept of rishta, which means ‘match’, ‘proposal’ or ‘connection’: both notions of strategic advantage and the emotional elements of marrying where connections already exist are part and parcel of the concept of the rishta (Charsley 2003). In Pakistan, marriage within the extended family or birādarī (other than with a relative prohibited as a spouse by Islamic marriage rules) is culturally preferred but not prescribed (see e.g. Donnan 1985, 1988; Fischer 1991). Existing scholarship on Pakistani marriage choices explores the interaction between social and cultural conventions governing a good match (rishta), environmental factors and individual motivations in determining actual marriage choices (Donnan 1985, 1988; Shaw 2000a, 2001; Fischer and Lyon 2000; see also Bourdieu 1977). Donnan’s influential analysis demonstrates how marriage arrangers make use of the social and cultural specifications for a ‘good’ match in order to negotiate the most advantageous arrangements, particularly where there is more than one spouse to choose from (Donnan 1985, 1988). Thus, some of the reasons people give for preferring marriage within the family, such as that it ensures similarity of socio-economic status between contracting households and protects the interests of daughters otherwise vulnerable to mistreatment by in-laws, are seen as justifications for the strategic interests of marriage arrangers (Donnan 1985, 1988; Fischer and Lyon 2000:307; Shaw 2000a:158). It may, however, be misleading to draw too sharp an analytical distinction between cultural expectations on the one hand and individual choice and action on the other, because conformity to 4 social and cultural expectation can be an important element of individual motivation in marriage choice, while pursing one’s best interests is also part of the Pakistani cultural expectation of marriage. Understanding the connotations of rishta helps clarify what is sought in arranging a marriage and reintroduces elements of sentimental connection between family members largely absent in strategic accounts of Pakistani marriage choices. In the context of marriage arrangement, rishta means ‘proposal’ or ‘match’, but also has the wider sense of ‘connection’, as in being