CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION, STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, AND AIM OF THE STUDY 1.1 INTRODUCTION The processes of reading and writing, two of the four language arts along with listening and speaking, are integral features of the lives of many people. While reading and writing are often used as leisure activities, they also play an important role in determining the level of success. "Today, more than ever, those with the ability to communicate through reading and writing have the key that opens doors of employment, recreation, and enlightenment” (Holbrook, Koenig, & Smith 1996:1). Before the invention of the printing press by Gutenberg in the fifteenth century, books were in short supply, as they had to be written manually by monks. Moreover, the cost of books was prohibitive, with the result that only the wealthy could afford to buy and read them. This privileged group included the clergy and certain members of the nobility (Humphrey & Humphrey 1990:31). With the proliferation of printing houses and the production of books, magazines, journals and newspapers on a large scale, anyone who can read has the opportunity to do so. Even if books and other reading materials are unaffordable, libraries throughout the world stock large quantities of reading materials that are easily accessible to the average reader. But reading is certainly not confined to books, newspapers, magazines or journals. Today, many people read hundreds or even thousands of words daily without even looking at a book, newspaper or magazine to do this. They read their mail, street signs, advertisements on billboards, package labels, the wording in television commercials, etc. (Bamman 1988:157). Using their computers, many people read e-mail messages, documents, spreadsheets, databases and information on internet sites. For Staiger (1990:48), reading begins as soon as the child responds to and becomes aware of stories. He maintains that the infant who is read to by the mother - even if the stories are not understood - learns that reading is a comfortable experience, and that 1 words and pictures must be good. Later, when the stories become pleasurable on a different level, this attitude towards reading will continue. Prior to the advent of the typewriter and computer, pens and pencils were used to write messages, letters, documents and books. Today, in many homes, educational institutions and business organisations, computers are used with greater frequency to generate formal and informal documents. However, the pen and pencil continue to be used by a sizeable number of persons, either because they prefer the convenience of these writing devices, or because they have not been introduced to computers. Even those who rely extensively on their computers frequently resort to the pen or pencil to record telephone numbers, or to write messages, recipes, etc. While the issue of the effectiveness of a reading and writing medium for sighted persons is not raised in serious debate, the same is not true for persons who are blind. In fact, the reading and writing modalities used by persons who are blind have been the focus of ongoing research in an effort to establish their comparative effectiveness. However, the findings of such research could potentially influence the selection of a particular medium, regardless of whether it responds to an individual's reading or writing needs. It is essentially for this reason that the current study focuses on the impact of the various reading and/or writing media on the education and employment of persons who are blind, rather than concentrating on comparing one or two media. 1.2 EXPLANATION OF CONCEPTS 1.2.1 Reading and writing media used by persons who are blind Although there are several reading and writing media used by persons who are blind, a detailed description of which will be provided in chapter three, for the purposes of this study, these reading and writing media have been grouped into three categories, namely: · Audio media · Tactile media · Electronic, audio/tactile media 2 Audio media include the following: · Audiotapes · Talking books · Live readers/scribes Tactile media include the following: · Braille · The Optacon Electronic, audio/tactile media include the following: · Optical character recognition document readers · Refreshable Braille displays · Portable electronic notetakers · Computers with text-to-speech software In discussing the various reading and writing media, attention will be given to how information is accessed or generated using these media. 1.2.2 Blindness The World Health Organisation defines blindness as 3/60 (finger counting at three metres) (Vaughan, Asbury and Riordan-Eva 1999:384). However, in South Africa, a person is registered blind if he/she has a visual acuity of less than 6/60 with correction. It must be emphasised that in the context of the measurement of visual acuity, the figure 6/60 does not represent a fraction. It means that the person with a visual acuity of 6/60 would be able to see at 6 metres what someone with normal vision would be able to see at 60 metres (Best 1992:2). Although the term visually impaired is used in many countries to describe both those who are blind and those with low vision, the terms blind and partially sighted are widely used in South Africa, being endorsed by the South African National Council for the Blind. 3 For purposes of this study, the term blind will be used to refer to those persons who are either totally blind, that is, having no light perception, or those who have limited light perception, but are unable to read print, even with optical or magnification devices, or when the print font is enlarged. A detailed discussion on blindness is included in chapter 2. 1.2.3 Braille Braille (a detailed description of which will be provided in chapter 3) is a system of embossed dots invented by Louis Braille in the 1820's (Jernigan 1994:81). The basic Braille symbol is called the Braille cell, and consists of six dots arranged in the formation of a rectangle, three dots high and two across (figure 1). Figure 1 The Braille cell · · · · · · To reduce the number of characters used to form words, the system of Braille makes use of contractions, which may be a single letter, or a combination of letters or symbols which represent words. 1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM 1.3.1 The processes of reading and writing for persons who are blind Unlike their sighted counterparts, reading for persons who are blind is confined to material such as books, journals, magazines and newsletters that are available in Braille, or to information in audiocassette or electronic formats. They do not have the benefit of incidental reading material such as street signs, advertisements on billboards, package labels, or the wording in television commercials. 4 An important observation is that young children who are blind often miss out on the purposes of reading and writing because, unlike their sighted peers, they do not observe their family members engaging in writing or reading activities, such as reading the newspaper, drawing up shopping lists, jotting down telephone numbers, or consulting a recipe card (Swenson 1988:337). The role of parents in minimising this drawback is often emphasised, as children need to be made aware at an early age of the value of a reading and writing medium if they are to meet the diverse challenges of education and employment. This issue is underscored by Swenson (1988:337) who maintains that parents need to realise that, even though print is an abstract concept for most children who are blind, they can and should be made aware of its many uses. Parents should describe in simple terms what they are reading or writing. Later, when children who are blind begin reading Braille and writing with the Braillewriter, their basic understanding of why people read and write would give them many reasons to practise and enjoy their new skills. Unquestionably, although Swenson (1988:337) emphasises the importance of building a solid foundation for reading and writing in Braille, the argument would apply equally to reading and writing/recording through other media, such as audiotapes, computers with speech output, and optical character recognition document readers (OCR scanners). Essentially, if children who are blind are not aware of the value of reading and writing, and if they do not enjoy reading and writing, they would be reluctant to use the various reading and writing media available to them. This idea is also explored by Bettelheim and Zelan (1982:48) who observe that well-meaning educators frequently implore learners to apply themselves more assiduously to learn reading skills, so that they would be able to "get ahead in the world." They (Bettelheim & Zelan 1982:48) argue that children are not strongly motivated by distant rewards. They need to believe that reading is a pleasurable activity, which educators, their parents and other adults engage in as well. In underscoring the importance of activities to promote reading as a pleasurable activity, Southgate (1984:9) maintains that teachers of reading should draw from a wide repertoire of activities to promote reading skills. This idea is reinforced by Phillips 5 (1984:14) who asserts that teachers should not only understand the objectives of teaching reading, they should be flexible in applying a programme that responds to the needs, interests and abilities of learners. An important consideration is that children who are blind should be given the reassurance that the reading and writing media used by persons who are blind are really alternate ways to reading and writing. This would result in a positive attitude to these media, particularly when they realise that these media are just as valuable as the print medium.