AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY PROTECTION BY PHOSPHINE FUMIGATION PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT NOVEMBER 2013 This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). It was prepared under USAID’s Global Environmental Management Support (GEMS) project. Cover photos: Phosphine fumigation monitoring equipment (top left), DIMEGSA Pest Control staff in Guatemala (top right), USAID food commodities stored in a warehouse (bottom). COMMODITY PROTECTION BY PHOSPHINE FUMIGATION IN USAID FOOD AID PROGRAMS PROGRAMMATIC ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT NOVEMBER 2013 Contract No.: AID-OAA-M-11-00021 Prepared for: Office of Food for Peace Bureau for Democracy, Conflict and Humanitarian Assistance United States Agency for International Development Prepared under: The Global Environmental Management Support Project (GEMS), Award Number AID-OAA-M-11-00021. The Cadmus Group, Inc., prime contractor (www.cadmusgroup.com). Sun Mountain International, principal partner (www.smtn.org). DISCLAIMER Until and unless this document is approved by USAID as a 22 CFR 216 Programmatic Environmental Assessment, the contents may not necessarily reflect the views of the United States Agency for International Development or the United States Government. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................................... I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................................... III SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................................................... IV Purpose of the Programmatic Environmental Assessment ................................................................ iv Approach of the PEA................................................................................................................................... v Findings of the PEA ..................................................................................................................................... vi Procedures and Use of the PEA ............................................................................................................. vii 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Purpose of the PEA ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Goals of the PEA .............................................................................................................................. 2 1.3 Overview of Fumigants in Food Aid ............................................................................................ 2 1.4 Overview of Reporting Requirements per USAID Environmental Regulations ................ 3 1.5 Application of the PEA for Partner Programs ........................................................................... 4 1.6 Methodology of the PEA ................................................................................................................ 4 2. BACKGROUND INFORMATION ................................................................................................... 14 2.1. USAID FFP Title II Food Aid Program ..................................................................................... 14 2.2 USAID Title II Food Aid Value Chain ....................................................................................... 16 2.3 Introduction to Phosphine Fumigation and Phosphine Chemistry .................................... 18 3. ALTERNATIVES INCLUDING THE PROPOSED ACTION ...................................................... 21 3.1. Description of the Proposed Action: Fumigation of food aid commodity using aluminum/magnesium phosphide ........................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Description of Alternatives to Phosphine Fumigation .......................................................... 24 3.3 Alternatives Eliminated from Analysis and Rationale for Eliminating Them .................... 32 3.4 Comparison of Environmental Impacts of Alternatives ....................................................... 36 4. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT ............................................................................................................. 38 4.1 Geographic Characteristics ........................................................................................................ 38 4.2 Social Characteristics ................................................................................................................... 39 4.3 Environmental Characteristics: Physical and Biological Resources .................................... 42 4.4 Policy, Legal, and Regulatory Requirements ........................................................................... 43 5. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES ......................................................................................... 46 5.1 Environmental Consequences of Phosphine Fumigation ...................................................... 46 5.2 Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment of Resources .................................................. 65 5.3 Means to Mitigate Adverse Health and Environmental Impacts ......................................... 66 6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................. 72 6.1 Major Conclusions ........................................................................................................................ 73 6.2 Data Gaps ....................................................................................................................................... 75 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................................. 77 WEBLINKS ...................................................................................................................................................... 91 LIST OF ACRONYMS ACDI/VOCA Agricultural Cooperative Development International and Volunteers in Overseas Cooperative Assistance AchE Acetyl cholinesterase AE Aerosol AI Active Ingredient APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (USDA) ARS Agricultural Research Service BEO Bureau Environmental Officer (USAID) BEST Bellmon Estimation Studies for Title II project (USAID) BP Best Practices BFS Bureau for Food Security (USAID) CA Certified Applicator CATAMA Committee on Aviation Toxicology, Aero Medical Association CCC Commodity Credit Corporation CFR Code of Federal Regulations (US) CCOHS Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety CO2 Carbon dioxide CRG Commodity Reference Guide CRS Catholic Relief Services CSB Corn soy blend DCHA Bureau for Democracy, Conflict & Humanitarian Assistance (USAID) DHHS Department of Health and Human Services (US) EC Emulsifiable Concentrate EWG Environmental Working Group (USAID) ESR Environmental Status Report FACG Food Aid Consultative Group FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations FAS Foreign Agricultural Service FDA Food and Drug Administration (DHHS) FFP Food for Peace (USAID) FGIS Federal Grain Inspection Service (US) FGPFS Food Grain Protection and Fumigation Specialist FHI Food for the Hungry International or Feed the Hungry International FMP Fumigation Management Plan FSA Farm Service Agency (USDA) FSP Fumigation service provider FtF Feed the Future (USAID) FY Fiscal Year GAO Government Accountability Office (US) GEMS Global Environmental Management Support GMO Genetically modified organism GUP General Use Pesticide HDPE High density polyethylene HHRE Human Health Risk Evaluation IEE Initial Environmental Examination IFADC International Food Aid and Development Conference IGR Insect Growth Regulator IO International organization IPM Integrated Pest Management i IRIS Integrated Risk Information System ITSH Internal Transport, Shipping and Handling KCCO Kansas City Commodity Office LOE Level of Effort MAAIF Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (Uganda) MSHA Mine Safety and Health Administration (US) MOE Margin of Exposure MT Metric Ton N2 Nitrogen NGO Non-Governmental Organization NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (US) NOAEL No Observed Adverse Effect Level O2 Oxygen OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration (US) PBO piperonyl butoxide PEA Programmatic Environmental Assessment PEL Permissible Exposure Limit PERSUAP Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan P.L. 480 Public Law 480 (US) Ppb Parts per billion PPE Personal protective equipment Ppm Parts per million PSA Participatory Stakeholder Analyst PVC Poly vinyl chloride PVO Private Voluntary Organization RED Reregistration Eligibility Decision (published by USEPA) RUP Restricted Use Pesticide SC Soluble Concentrate SIA Social Impact Assessment SOP Standard Operating Procedure SOW Scope of Work UN United Nations UNESCO United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization USAID United States Agency for International Development USDA United States Department of Agriculture USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency USDHHS United States Department of Health and Human Services WBSCM Web Based Supply Chain Management WFP World Food Programme (of the UN) WP Wettable