Iranica Antiqua, vol. XXXVII, 2002 IN REVERENCE FOR DEITIES AND SUBMISSION TO KINGS: A FEW GESTURES IN ANCIENT NEAR EASTERN SOCIETIES BY Jamsheed K. CHOKSY (Bloomington) Introduction* Two important themes in archeological, artistic, and literary sources extant from ancient Near Eastern societies are religious devotion and royal ide- ology. A common characteristic of both themes was the presence of symbolic imagery. The authority of deities and monarchs was sustained by those societal constructs within the devotional and ideological systems, practices that also reinforced social hierarchies. Authority, and its grantors and wielders, often is anthropomorphized (Geertz 1977: 153). So, sculp- tural images of divinities and rulers in the ancient Near Eastern societies were often regarded as living, anthropomorphic representations (Bottéro 2001: 64–66). The images became recipients of complex, highly ritual- ized, behavior through which power could be acknowledged (Winter 1992: 13–15). Texts and acts, forms and functions, linked the realms of divinities and humans, to one another within a religiously-constructed worldview. Gesture served as one medium for the nexus between sacred and secular, as becomes apparent from the depictions of that form of sym- bolism in the surviving material and literary corpuses. Gesture or iconicity in expression is a behavioral trait largely, although not completely, unique to humans and is related directly to the conscious capacity and cognitive development of the brain (Donald 2001: 137-139, 144-145, 260-261). * Research on this topic began at Harvard University, under the guidance of Professor C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky. So, it is with much gratitude for Professor Lamberg- Karlovsky’s intellectual acumen and collegial generosity that I present this study in his honor. I am thankful to professors R. N. Frye and P. Steinkeller for their valuable guidance and suggestions proffered at Harvard many years ago. 8 J.K. CHOKSY The gestures portrayed in ancient Near Eastern art and occasionally men- tioned to in religious literature and dedicatory formulae were not, how- ever, merely the products of priests and kings. Gestures appear to have been familiar societal acts whose symbolic significance would have been accessible to all social classes — as was and still is the case for other cul- tures and time periods (compare Bremmer and Roodenburg 1991; Brilliant 1963). Yet, gesture is not merely a performative process of communicat- ing cultural constructs. It is a mimetic means of storing and preserving such information (Donald 2001: 295, 321–323). It also is a ritual structure that permits classification of information. Gesture figured forth, in public and private, the relationships of each individual within the religious cos- mos and the royal kingdom. Hence, many forms of gesture developed and changed over time in the Near East. Certain Near Eastern gestures have been the subject of earlier studies — such as proskynesis (Widengren 1959; Bickerman 1963; Sundermann 1964; Sachsen-Meiningen 1969; Frye 1972), ceremonial acts in Assyria (Furlani 1927), and biblical hand placement (Wright 1986, with extensive bibliography). This essay focuses on four forms of reverential or devotional and sub- missive or deferential gestures: clasped hands; raised hand(s); bent fore- finger; and kneeling and prostration. It continues and supplements, for earlier time periods and somewhat different locales, previous studies by me on the use of gesture in Iran and Central Asia from the Achaemenian period onward (Choksy 1990a-b). Each of those four gestures appear to have been relatively commonplace within ancient Near Eastern societies, as will be seen, from the Mesopotamian floodplain to the Iranian plateau. So, the cultural framework in which the gestures are analyzed is that of Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Elam from Early Dynastic times until the end of the Neo-Babylonian, Neo-Assyrian, and Neo-Elamite periods. The evolution, usage and significance of those gestures during a span of over two thousand five hundred years can be examined using extant evidence from sculptures, bas reliefs, wall paintings, and etchings on cylinder seals. The evidence garnered from such works of material culture may be correlated to textual descriptions of gestures in instances where such data is available. Gesture in ancient Near Eastern societies does not only provide the opportunity for descriptive analysis within a chronological framework. It also enables archaeologists, art historians, and historians to comprehend the continuity of social relationships and distinguish important characteristics IN REVERENCE FOR DEITIES AND SUBMISSION TO KINGS 9 of those archaic societies. Similarly, the prototypes of medieval Near East- ern gestures are often found in antiquity. It is important to note that a sym- bol, especially in the form of a gesture, often possessed different meanings depending on the context in which it was used (Firth 1973: 190, 260). The value ascribed to particular gestures would vary within different contexts, in different places, and at different times — acknowledging divine status or high mortal rank as the situation required. Furthermore, gestures could depreciate or appreciate in valence — so, for example, ones assimilated from Mesopotamia and Assyria by the Iranians and reserved initially for divinities eventually became commonplace as time passed (see further Frye 1972). Therefore it should not be presupposed, for instance, that ges- tures employed both before images of deities and in the presence of mon- archs necessarily indicate Near Eastern rulers always were accorded divine rank by their subjects. Yet, sovereignty was basically regarded as sacral in origin (Geertz 1977: especially 151, 152). Therefore its wielders were considered special in the Near East (Widengren 1959; Choksy 1988). So overlap between categories did occur, as will become apparent, and such congruity may have contributed to the eventual decline in value associated with specific gestures. Clasped Hands The gesture of clasped hands is one of the earliest reverential forms attested in the ancient Near East. Numerous examples of the basic act, placing the palm of one hand in the palm of the other hand, are extant on reliefs and figurines. The hands were clasped with either both palms held vertically or with one palm placed vertically and the other palm placed horizontally. A prototype for the gesture may have been practiced as early as ca. 3300 B.C. by denizens of Susa or Shush (Amiet 1980: Pls. 237–239). The gesture was clearly utilized during the Early Dynastic II period (ca. 2700–2600 B.C.) as evidenced by temple statuary of standing worshipers (Parrot 1961a: Pls. 129–130; Amiet 1980: Pls. 35–36). Figurines from Mari (Tell Hariri), Tell al-Ubaid, Girsu (Tello) and the Diyala region, dating to between ca. 2500 B.C. and ca. 2400 B.C., indicate the gesture continued in use during the Early Dynastic III period (ca. 2600–2350 B.C.) (Amiet 1980: Pls. 39, 42; Hall 1928: Pl. 5; Parrot 1961a: Pl. 140). Per- haps clasping of the right wrist with the left hand, as seen on the votive statute of Lamgi-Mari, head of the city of Mari (ca. 2500–2400 B.C.) in the 10 J.K. CHOKSY temple of the goddess Ishtar, was a variation of the set theme (Parrot 1961a: Pl. 145). Or, perhaps, it was a separate yet parallel gesture. The hand-over-wrist action, first documentable in Neo-Sumerian or Ur III times (ca. 2111–2003 B.C.), may also have belonged to the same category. Overall, both location and imagery of the statuary suggests that clasping of hands was performed, during Early Dynastic times, as a sign of devotion for deities. However, a pierced limestone plaque which depicts Ur-Nanshe, the ensi ‘governor, local ruler, or lord’ of Lagash (Al-Hiba), dating from ca. 2500 B.C. and discovered at Girsu, depicts that leader’s children and courtiers standing in his presence with clasped hands (Parrot 1961a: Pl. 159; Amiet 1980: Pl. 44). Although the scenes on the plaque are not directly devo- tional — depicting construction of a temple and a feast following its completion — the pose adopted by Ur-Nanshe’s children and courtiers suggests that use of this gesture was not always restricted to veneration of spiritual entities. Consequently, the question arises as to whether Ur- Nanshe had sought reverence similar to that for deities, or if the gesture was used merely as a form of deference to him. Given that, prior to Ur- Nanshe’s reign, clasping of the hands appears to have been used only as a symbol of devotion by votaries suggests he may have been regarded by persons in the royal court as having semi-divine status or may have sought to claim such status for himself — perhaps because he established the dynastic principle at Lagash (Hallo and Simpson 1998: 50). Enshrinement and deification of important rulers was not particularly rare (Winter 1992: 29, 33). So, Ur-Nanshe’s image as the recipient of a votive gesture would not have been regarded as inappropriate. Yet, even he was depicted, in another image from Girsu, with clasped hands gazing out of the scene pos- sibly toward a deity or symbolic signs of a deity (Amiet 1980: Pl. 326). About three hundred and fifty years later, Gudea (ca. 2165–2145 B.C.) the ensi of Lagash had numerous seated and standing statues of himself carved with his hands clasped (Parrot 1961a: Pls. 251, 253–256, 263, 265; Amiet 1980: Pls. 377–378, 380–381). The manner in which Gudea’s hands are clasped represents an artistic convention: in reality, the thumb of his left hand could not have been placed fully in the position shown on those statues (as noted by Parrot 1961a: xlvi–xlvii, and Pls. 251–256). Attached inscriptions record that the images were placed within temples to represent Gudea before the divinities, and to recount the major endeavors undertaken by him in the construction of temples (Pritchard 1969b: IN REVERENCE FOR DEITIES AND SUBMISSION TO KINGS 11 268–269; Harper 1984: 4–5; on the ritual roles of Gudea’s imagery see Winter 1992).