SEX PREFERENCE FOR CHILDREN AND GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN ASIA January 1996 KOREA INSTITUTE FOR HEALTH AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS UNITED NATIONS POPULATION FUND (UNFPA) PREFACE The Korean Institute for Health and Social Affairs (KIHASA) has organised a series of international seminars and symposia on emerging issues arising from the rapid fertility decline that has occurred throughout most of Asia. Thus in 1991 KIHASA organised an International Seminar on the consequences of fertility decline with respect to the implications for the family and the elderly. In 1993 a follow-up International Seminar was organised on the socio-economic and cultural consequences of replacement and below replacement level fertility. The proceedings of these two seminars were subsequently published by KIHASA respectively as, Impact of Fertility Decline on Population Policies and Programme Strategies, and Low Fertility in East and Southeast Asia: Issues and Policies. One of the issues that came to light during the 1993 Seminar was an indication that the sex ratio at birth was rising in several of the low fertility countries of East Asia, notable among them being China, the Chinese Province of Taiwan and the Republic of Korea where figures on sex ratios at birth of higher than 110 boys per 100 girls had been recorded. Although the sex ratio at first birth has generally remained around the expected level, it tends to increase sharply with increasing birth order, which appears to be evidence of sex preference for children. Towards the end of 1994 an International Symposium on Issues Related to Sex Preference for Children in the Rapidly Changing Demographic Dynamics in Asia was held to consider a number of important issues related to sex preference for children and gender discrimination in Asia. The Symposium was held in Seoul from the 21st to the 24th of November 1994. It was jointly organised by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the government of the Republic of Korea and hosted by KIHASA. Many of the important topics that the Symposium addressed are identified as matters for action in the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development held in Cairo in September 1994, including the situation of the girl child, the status of women, and practices like differential provision of health care services to children of different sexes and sex-selective abortion. This publication contains an edited set of the 10 country studies that were presented at the Symposium. In addition to the country studies, a broad overview of son preference in Asia is given in the opening chapter and some of the key issues and conclusions arising from the studies are discussed in the final chapter. This publication thus provides a selection of authoritative contributions to the important and current debate on the topic of sex preference for children and gender discrimination in Asia. A series of recommendations in the areas of data and research and policies and programmes drafted at the Symposium are given in Appendix. I am sure that these will be of considerable value to policy makers and planners throughout Asia. The Symposium was generously funded by UNFPA with additional resources provided by KIHASA. As the joint-organiser of the Symposium, KIHASA is grateful for the technical support provided by the Technical and Evaluation Division of UNFPA, and in particular to its Director, Mr. Jyoti Singh and his Deputy, Mohamad Nizamuddin. Many other people contributed towards the success of the Symposium. I would especially like to thank the staff of the Research and Planning Division of KIHASA, in particular Dr. Moon-Sik Hong, Mrs. Moon-Hee Suh, Mrs. Hyun Oak Kim, and Ms. Wha-Oak Bae, as well as the Vice President of KIHASA Dr. Nam-Hoon Cho for their great efforts in helping to ensure the successful implementation of the Symposium. Finally, thanks are also due to Richard Leete for editing the selection of papers contained in this publication and to Ms. Soo Mei May and Ms. Yun-Ja Jung for their able word processing contributions. The views and opinions expressed in the various chapters are those of the authors alone and do not necessarily reflect the views of either KIHASA or UNFPA. January 1996 Ha-Cheong Yeon, Ph.D. President, KIHASA FOREWORD Asian women are making a major contribution to national development efforts, through their increasing participation in modern sector employment; through the vast sums of money remitted whilst working away from home as migrant labourers, as well as through their continuing contribution to agricultural production, and household and family duties. Yet despite women's self-evident contribution as equal partners in national development efforts, they continue to suffer appalling discrimination in almost every sphere of life. Although there have been some notable improvements, especially in the areas of health and education, in much of Asia clear economic, social and political inequalities still persist. During the course of the transition from high to low fertility in Asia, traditional prejudices have resurfaced and new forms of discrimination have emerged. Since the mid-1980s more and more evidence has come to light of increased discrimination against girls. Female sex-selective abortion following prenatal foetal sex-detection tests, female infanticide, abandonment, and wilful neglect of female babies in the provision of nutrition, medical attention and general care have been observed in several Asian countries. In some situations these phenomena have led to distortions in the sex ratios at birth, as well as a reversal of the biologically determined infant and child mortality differential that normally favours females. Thus in the same way as the new medical technology appears to be modifying natural sex ratios at birth on account of son preferences, discriminatory treatment of boys and girls, particularly with respect to nutrition and health care, is continuing to reverse the natural differential in survival chances in infancy and childhood in particular settings. The Programme of Action adopted by the 1994 Cairo International Conference on Population and Development put forward a basis for action with respect to the girl child. It noted that since in all societies discrimination on the basis of sex often starts at the earliest stages of life, greater equality for the girl child is a necessary first step in ensuring that women realise their full potential and become equal partners in development. In a number countries, the practice of prenatal sex-selection, higher rates of mortality among very young girls, and lower rates of school enrolment as compared with boys, suggest that son preference is curtailing the access of girl children to food, education and health care. This is often compounded by the increasing use of technologies to determine foetal sex, resulting in abortion of female foetuses. It further noted the critical importance of investments made in the girl child's health, nutrition and education, from infancy through adolescence. The International Symposium on Issues Related to Sex Preference for Children in the Rapidly Changing Demographic Dynamics in Asia was held in Seoul from the 21st to the 24th of November 1994. The Symposium was jointly organised by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the government of the Republic of Korea and hosted by the Korean Institute for Health and Social Affairs (KIHASA). It brought together a number of distinguished population scientists, planners and other experts from within and outside of Asia. This publication of the edited country studies is an output from the Symposium. It will provide an important focus for addressing the issues of sex preference for children and gender discrimination in Asia. In particular, the recommendations drafted at the Symposium (see Appendix below) will provide a basis for formulating population policies and programmes that take into account the implications of sex preference for children in efforts to eliminate gender discrimination. The success of any international Symposium is contingent upon the effective team work of a large number of individuals. I would especially like to place on record my thanks to Dr. Ha-Cheong Yeon, President, KIHASA, for his keen support and enthusiasm for the Symposium. I would also like to thank my colleagues in the Technical and Evaluation Division of UNFPA, for their strong commitment to the many preparatory tasks that had to be undertaken. The support of the Population Division of the Department of Social and Economic Policy Analysis, United Nations, is also acknowledged. January 1996 Jyoti Singh Director, UNFPA CONTENTS PART I. CONTEXT AND BACKGROUND 1. Nature of Sex Preference for Children and Gender Discrimination in Asia : Mohamad Nizamuddin and Iqbal Alam ··················································································· 23 PART II. COUNTRY STUDIES - EAST ASIA 2. Sex Ratio at Birth and Son Preference in China : Gu Bao Chang and Li Yong Ping ·········································· 43 3. Sex Ratio at Birth and Son Preference in Taiwan Province of China : Ming-Cheng Chang ····························· 71 4. Effects of Induced Abortion and Son Preference on Korea's Imbalanced Sex Ratio at Birth : Nam-Hoon Cho and Moon-Sik Hong ······································ 90 PART III. COUNTRY STUDIES - SOUTH ASIA 5. Son Preference and Excess Female Mortality in India's Demographic Transition : Monica Das Gupta and Leela Visaria ······································································