MODERN TECHNOLOGY OF ROLLING MILL, BILLETS, STEEL WIRE, GALVANIZED SHEET, FORGING AND CASTINGS In metalworking, rolling is a metal forming process in which metal stock is passed through a pair of rolls. Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling. If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. In terms of usage, hot rolling processes more tonnage than any other manufacturing process and cold rolling processes the most tonnage out of all cold working processes. There are many types of rolling processes, including flat rolling, foil rolling, ring rolling, roll bending, roll forming, profile rolling, and controlled rolling. Originally, a “billet” (from the French) was a note, commonly used in the 18th and early 19th centuries as a “billet of invitation.” A particular use of the word in this sense is to denote an order issued to a soldier entitling him to quarters with a certain person. From this meaning, the word billet came to be loosely used of the quarters thus obtained. Repeated petitions against the practice of billeting, starting in the 16th century, culminated in its outlawing in 1689 as an extension of a section of the Petition of Right 1628. During wartime, civilians who have been evacuated from a city in danger of attack are billetted in communal shelters or in the homes of individuals. The practice of billetting evacuees was widespread in Britain during World War II, particularly during the Blitz, when children and other non-essential persons in major cities were sent to rural areas for safety. In European countries since the formation of regular forces the Quartermaster was an occupation and a rank of the individuals responsible for provision of sleeping quarters as well as other provisions for regular time troops. In general, galvanized sheet metal is mild (carbon) steel that is used for a ton of different things. This material is tough and strong, and it can be fairly easily worked (bent or formed) in a number of different ways to produce useful products (like HVAC ductwork, to name just one application). It lasts a long time, too, because the zinc coating (the galvanizing) inhibits corrosion quite well. Forging or cold forming are metalforming processes. There is no melting and consequent solidification involved. Plastic deformation produces an increase in the number of dislocations resulting in a higher state of internal stress. Indeed, strain hardening is attributed to the interaction of dislocations with other dislocations and other barriers (such as grain boundaries). Simultaneously, the shape of primary crystals (dendrites) changes after plastic working of the metal. Dendrites are stretched in the direction of metal flow and thus form fibers of increased strength along the direction of flow. Casting is a solidification process. Therefore, the microstructure can be finely tuned, such as grain structure, phase transformations and precipitation. However, defects such as shrinkage porosity, cracks and segregation are also intimately linked to solidification. These defects can lead to lower mechanical properties. A subsequent heat treatment is often required to reduce residual stresses and optimize mechanical properties. The book cover various aspects on Rolling Mill, Billets, Steel Wire, Galvanised Sheet, Forging and Castings. Chapter 1 Technology of Rolling Mills •Types of Mills •General Classification •Arrangement of Mills •Types of Roll Mountings •Mill-Size Description •Rolling-Mill Accessories •Lead Spindle •Mill Pinions •The Bearings •Roller Bearings •Oil-Film Bearings •Chock Bearings •Arrangement of Chock Bearings •Housings •Guides and Guards •Rolling-Mill Roll Design and Manufacture •Principal Parts of Rolls •Procedure in Designing •Elements of Good Roll Design •Casting of Rolling-Mill Rolls •Steel Rolls •Iron-Base Rolls •Chill Rolls •Grain-Iron Rolls •Composite or Overflowed Rolls •Ductile-Iron Rolls •Mill Drives and Power Requirements •Development of Main •Mill Drives •Power Requirements for Various Operations in •the Production of Steel •Factors Affecting Size and •Type of Main-Drive Motors •Types of Motors for Main Drives •Synchronous Motors •Squirrel-Cage Motors •Wound-Rotor Induction Motors •Direct-Current Motors •Principle and Application of Flywheels •Energy Stored in a Flywheel •Amount of Energy Available for Regulation •Acceleration and Retardation of the •Wheel •Induction-Motor •Characteristics •Motor Load Curves Various Means for •Obtaining Adjustable •Speeds •Control of Two-Speed AC Motors •AC-Motor Speed Control by Secondary •Resistance •Variable-Speed Controls for AC Motors •Variable-Speed Controls for DC Motors •Ward-Leonard Control •Relay and Continuous-Feedback Systems •Reversing-Mill Drives •The Flywheel Motor-Generator Set •Three-High Mill Drives •Continuous-Mill Drives •Wide-Hot-Strip Mills •Tandem Cold-Reduction Mills •Continuous Billet Mills •Continuous Bar Mills •Continuous Rod Mills •Continuous Seamless Tube Mill •Motor-Room Ventilation •Auxiliary Drives •Table Rollers •Screw-Downs •Manipulators and Side-Guards •Blooming-Mill Shears •Future Drives •Automatic Control of Rolling Operations •Principles of Process Control Systems •Process Equations •Instrumentation •Control of Primary Rolling •Plate-Mill Control •Hot-Strip Mill Control •Roughing •Finishing •Computer Control •Control of Cold-Reduction Mills •Reversing Mills •Tandem Mills •Computer Control Chapter 2 Heating Steel for Hot Working •Principles of Furnace Design •Objectives and General Metallurgical Requirements •Basic Elements of Furnaces •Furnace Size and Capacity •Furnace Type and Shape •Thermal Efficiency •Materials of Construction •Soaking-Pit Furnaces •Introductory Types of Soaking-Pit Furnaces •Auxiliary Facilities •Ingot Pit Cranes •Cinder-Removal Facilities •Objectives in Modern Soaking Pit Design •Modern Heating Practices •Operating Statistics •Reheating Furnaces •Furnace Types •Pusher-Type Furnaces •Walking-Beam-Type Furnaces •Roller-Hearth Reheating Furnaces •General Considerations in Furnace-Type Selection •Batch-Type Furnaces •Pusher-Type Furnaces •Rotary-Hearth Furnaces •Walking-Beam Furnaces •Roller-Hearth Furnaces •Operating Statistics Chapter 3 Production of Steel Blooms, Slabs and Billets •Introductory •Production of Blooms and Slabs by Rolling •General Features of Blooming and Slabbing Mills •Primary-Mill Activities •Two-High Reversing Mill •Two-High Tandem Mill •Three-High Mill •Operating Units Comprising a Blooming Mill •Rolling •Shearing •Combinations of Conventional-Type Mills for Special Purposes •Two Two-High Reversing Mills in Tandem •Tandem and Three-high Mill in Tandem •Four-Stand and Five-Stand Tandem •Mills in Tandem •Design of Blooming-Slabbing Mill Roll Stands •Stand Design •Roll Design and Rolling Procedures •Roll Design •Effect of Pass Design on Rolling Procedures •Convexity of Passes •Depth of Passes Bearings •Roll-Opening Indicators •Roll-Changing Devices •Cooling Water •Manipulators •Production of Billets by Rolling •Development of the Billet Mill •Types of Billet Mills •Three-High Billet Mills •Cross-Country Billet Mills •Advantages of Cross-Country Mills •Continuous Billet Mill •Six-Stand Continuous Mill at Lorain Works •The Four-Stand Continuous Mill at Lorain •Hot-Scarfing Machines Roll Adjustment •Shears •Identification •Continuous Casting of Blooms, Slabs and Billets •Principles of Continuous Casting •The Continuous Slab Caster at Gary Works •Sequence of Operations •Process Control Chapter 4 Steel Plates Manufacture •Plate-Mill Products •Plate-Mill Operations •Heating Slabs for Rolling •Batch-Type Heating Furnaces •Continuous-type Heating Furnaces •Furnace Control •Descaling •Plate Rolling •Plate Rolling Variables •Bending of Rolls •Roll Wear •Temperature Variation •Levelling (Flattening) Cooling •Shearing and Cutting •Identification, Inspection and Loading •General Types of Plate Mills •Two-High Pull-Over, Two-High Single-Stand •Reversing and Three-High Plate Mills •Three-High Plate Mills •Four-High Reversing Plate Mills •160/210-Inch Plate Mill •Slab Yard •Slab-Reheating Furnaces •Scalebreaker •Slab Turnaround •Four-High Reversing Stand Tables •Transfer Tables and Cooling •Levelers •Plate-Inspection Turnovers •Plate Marking Crop Shear •Side Shears •Dividing Shear •Scrap Shears •Inspection and Piling •Flame Cutting •Heat-Treating Facilities •Roll Shop •Lubrication •160-Inch Four-High Plate Mill at Homestead Works •Tandem Mills •Semi-continuous and Continuous Mills •The 100-inch Semi-Continuous Plate Mill at Homestead Works •No. 3 Shear Unit •No. 4 Shear Unit •Rotary Shear Line—No. 1 Shear Unit •Continuous Normalizing Furnace •No. 2 Shear Unit •The 96-inch Four-High •Continuous Plate Mill at South Works •Universal Plate Mills •The 30-Inch Universal Plate Mill •Reheating Furnaces •30-Inch Universal Plate Mill Stand •Rolling •Hot Bed •Finishing •Heat-Treating Facilities for Steel Plates •Types of Heat Treatment •Furnaces for Heat Treating Plates •Plate Heat-Treating •Equipment at Homestead Works •160-Inch Mill Heat-Treating Facilities •100-Inch Mill Hardening-Tempering Furnace •Car-Bottom Heat-Treating Furnaces •Plate Heat-Treating Equipment Chapter 5 Technology of Steel Wire and Steel Wire Products •Principle Uses of Steel Wire Early Method of Manufacture Classification of Steel Wire •Bases for Classification •Kinds and Composition of Steel Used for Wire •Wire Shapes