Title Page Language Policy Rationales, Appropriation and Debates: A Case of English as Medium of Instruction in Indonesia’s International-Standard Schools by Anis Sundusiyah B.A., Diponegoro University, 2000 M.Ed., State Univerity of Semarang, 2004 M.A., Ohio University, 2006 Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Pittsburgh 2019 Committee Page UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF EDUCATION This dissertation was presented by Anis Sundusiyah It was defended on October 21, 2019 and approved by Maureen Porter, Associate Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies Richard Tucker, Paul Mellon University Professor of Applied Lingusitic Emeritus, Department of Modern Languages, Carnegie Mellon University John Weidman, Emeritus Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies Dissertation Director: Maureen McClure, Associate Professor, Department of Administrative and Policy Studies Copyright © by Anis Sundusiyah 2019 Abstract Language Policy Rationales, Appropriation and Debates: A Case of English as Medium of Instruction in Indonesia’s International-Standard Schools Anis Sundusiyah University of Pittsburgh, 2019 Beyond its pedagogical technicality, language policy is both ideological and political. The English as Medium of Instruction or EMI policy in Indonesia’s international-standard public schools (IS-Schools) was an exemplary picture of how ideologically and politically contentious a language policy could be. The policy marked a significant shift of the nation’s language policy orientations, from post-independence state-nationalism and sociopolitical cohesion, to global economic competitiveness and political alliance. With unequal educational access in this populated, multicultural country, the EMI policy faced not only technical challenges at school level, but also normative, ideological and political resistance from micro- and macro-level stakeholders. In this constructivist study, I described and analyzed the Indonesia’s EMI policy goals and its surrounding debates, including a school-based case study to illustrate micro-level practices and challenges. Generating data from policy documentations and interviews, I applied an interpretive policy framework to analyze policy-relevant artifacts, meanings, interpretive communities and discourses. The analysis primarily explored differences between policy meanings—as intended by national policy makers—and various, contrasting meanings—as framed and constructed by multilevel stakeholders, including local teachers and domestic and international scholars. Key findings revealed divergent values, beliefs and approaches to problems, constructed out of stakeholder’s social situatedness. Despite optimistic tones from policy makers and several iv school members, many were alarmed with schools differing capacities related to teachers’ language competence and logistics. Many praised global-oriented goals of EMI policy in increasing individuals’ opportunities and mobility—supposedly resulting from instrumental and integrative values of English-mediated education—and hence the nation’s global economic and sociopolitical existence. Most stakeholders acknowledged utilitarian merits of English language competence, but many disapproved of English being an instructional language. Opponents argued that officiating English as additional medium of instruction in public schools may empirically and hypothetically contribute to youth’s national identity erosion, national language marginalization, and speedy decrease of local language speakers. Some scholars believed that incentive-loaded IS- Schools had deepened socioeconomic divides among formal schools. Such differing viewpoints may not always be in opposition. However, ideological and political alignments seemed to be challenging, resulting in wicked language policy situations. v Table of Contents Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................................... xix 1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 Overview .......................................................................................................................... 1 Research questions ......................................................................................................... 3 Rationales ........................................................................................................................ 4 1.3.1 Essay 1: Policy goals and rationales .................................................................. 5 1.3.2 Essay 2: Policy appropriation ............................................................................ 6 1.3.3 Essay 3: Policy debates ....................................................................................... 6 Significance ..................................................................................................................... 7 Previous studies .............................................................................................................. 8 Key terms ...................................................................................................................... 10 1.6.1 English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) ..................................................... 11 1.6.2 International-Standard Schools (IS-Schools) ................................................. 12 2.0 Research setting .................................................................................................................... 17 Levels of schooling ........................................................................................................ 17 Educational governance ............................................................................................... 19 2.2.1 Decentralization................................................................................................. 20 2.2.2 Funding .............................................................................................................. 21 2.2.3 Meritocracy and stratification ......................................................................... 22 Language policies in schools today ............................................................................. 23 2.3.1 National and official language ......................................................................... 23 vi 2.3.2 Local and regional languages ........................................................................... 25 2.3.3 Foreign languages ............................................................................................. 27 Historical perspective of language education in schools ........................................... 28 3.0 Literature review .................................................................................................................. 32 Language policy and planning (LPP) ......................................................................... 32 3.1.1 Basic notions ...................................................................................................... 33 3.1.2 Theoretical perspectives in LPP studies .......................................................... 35 3.1.2.1 Early traditional approaches ................................................................ 35 3.1.2.2 Critical approaches ................................................................................ 36 3.1.2.3 Post-modernism and ethnographic approaches .................................. 39 3.1.3 Educational language policies .......................................................................... 42 Considerations in English language planning: Policy makers’ perspectives ......... 46 3.2.1 Language planning for economic productivity............................................... 47 3.2.1.1 Basic concepts: Linguistic capital and human capital........................ 48 3.2.1.2 Individual productivity ......................................................................... 49 3.2.1.3 Nation, macro-level productivity .......................................................... 51 3.2.2 Functional literacy toward global competence ............................................... 55 3.2.2.1 Basic concepts: Functional, global literacy ......................................... 55 3.2.2.2 Science and technology exchange ......................................................... 57 3.2.2.3 Global business market ......................................................................... 58 3.2.2.4 Economic migrations ............................................................................. 61 3.2.3 Language planning for sociopolitical identities .............................................. 63 3.2.3.1 Basic concepts: Social cohesion and social distinction ....................... 63 vii 3.2.3.2 Micro and meso level of aspired identity ............................................. 66 3.2.3.3 Macro nation-state affiliated identity .................................................. 68 Comparative Contexts .................................................................................................. 72 3.3.1 Malaysia ............................................................................................................. 72 3.3.2 Thailand ............................................................................................................