Gnosis, Witness, and Early Christian Identities: The “True” Martyr in Clement of Alexandria and Gnostic Traditions Pamela Mullins Reaves A dissertation submitted to the faculty of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Religious Studies Chapel Hill 2013 Approved by: Elizabeth A. Clark Bart D. Ehrman David Lambert Zlatko Plese Randall G. Styers Abstract PAMELA MULLINS REAVES: Gnosis, Witness, and Early Christian Identities: The “True” Martyr in Clement of Alexandria and Gnostic Traditions (Under the direction of Dr. Bart D. Ehrman) This project examines three early Christian texts that reflect diverse approaches to suffering and martyrdom in the late second and early third centuries—Clement of Alexandria’s Stromateis, Book IV; the Coptic Apocalypse of Peter (NHC VII,3); and the Testimony of Truth (NHC IX,3). These texts question the value of suffering and construct distinctive means of “witnessing” Christ, which do not prioritize or promote a suffering death. Seeking a basis for these perspectives, this project considers the Christological views of each author as well as evidence for emerging, diverse Christian identities in the texts. In all cases, Christ reveals the proper path for the “true” Christian, but suffering is not central to it; his own distance from suffering confirms this. Limiting the significance of his death, each author emphasizes Christ’s instruction, centered on individual progress toward gnosis. Strom. and Testim. Truth, specifically, promote control of the passions as a central aspect of the development of the Christian self. Such interior practices, combined with a limited interest in ecclesiastical matters, including rituals that reflect and sustain group identity, also contribute to each text’s related evaluations of martyrdom. In addition, the three texts also show how responses to potential suffering surface in the context of intra-Christian debate; views of other Christians are described and condemned as each author presents his “correct” version of the faith. Corresponding with the heresiological efforts of Tertullian and other proto-orthodox Christians, this trend reveals that perspectives on martyrdom were critical in the evolution of group boundaries, progressively solidified via discourse of “orthodoxy” and “heresy.” At the same time, the nature of such debates illustrates the interaction of diverse Christian groups within a broad Christian community. Social identity theory serves as a useful framework for understanding how the prospect of martyrdom contributed to the emergent Christian identities and related intra-group tensions apparent in all three texts. ii Acknowledgements In the years spent researching and writing this dissertation, I was fortunate to find encouragement and support from numerous individuals. I am especially grateful for the support of my advisor, Bart Ehrman. Over the course of my project, he showed incredible patience, while offering excellent feedback, encouragement, and, on occasion, much- needed humor. I also thank Zlatko Plese for substantial written comments on early drafts as well as fruitful conversations, which always challenged me to consider my material from new perspectives. As I presented portions of my chapters in various contexts, including the Society of Biblical Literature Annual Meetings and the International Conference on Patristic Studies, I also benefitted from questions, comments, and encouragement of colleagues. In addition, I am very appreciative of the feedback I received at various stages from friends in the UNC-Duke Christianity in Antiquity reading group. Finally, I am grateful for the ongoing support of my family, immediate and extended, who helped in numerous ways as I completed this project. I feel special appreciation for my spouse, Peter, who provided emotional support, generously shared parental duties, and offered periodic pep talks, all of which helped me complete the project. I also thank my parents, Keith and Susan Mullins, who encouraged me to begin this journey and continued to offer support along the way. iii Table of Contents List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………….vi Chapters 1. Multiple Martyrdoms and Early Christian Identities…………………….1 The Prominence of Martyrdom in Early Christianity………………………...4 Gnosis and Martyrdom…………………………………………………........14 Gnosis and Early Christian Group Dynamics…………………………….….21 Early Christian Discourse via a Social Identity Lens…………………….….26 2. The Gnostic Witness: Superior Martyrdom in Clement of Alexandria’s Stromateis…………………………………………………37 Multiple Martyrdoms………………………………………………………..40 Gnosis and Christian Community…………………………………………...52 Christ as Divine Instructor…………………………………………………..57 Care of the Christian Self: Clement’s Gnostic Life…………………………70 3. Peter as Witness in the Coptic Apocalypse of Peter (NHC VII, 3)………88 Apocalypse of Peter as Apocalypse…………………………………………98 Group Identities in Apocalypse of Peter…………………………………...104 Peter’s Christological Visions……………………………………………..122 Peter as “Martyr”…………………………………………………………..129 iv 4. Martyrdom without Sacrifice: The Silent Witness in the Testimony of Truth (NHC IX,3)……………………………………...…134 Misguided Martyrdom……………………………………………………144 The Son of Man vs. the Jordan………………………………………..….147 Christian Practice and Intra-Group Debate in the Testimony of Truth…...153 Revising Ritual…………………………………………………………...159 Intra-Group Fluidity……………………………………………………...166 5. Self and Social Identities: Group Relations in Early Christianity…...174 Refining Gnostic Social Groups………………………………………….178 Intra-Group Conflict and the Rise of Orthodoxy……………………....…182 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….185 v List of Abbreviations 1 Apoc. Jas. First Apocalypse of James (NHC V,3) 1 Apol. Justin, First Apology 1 Clem. 1 Clement 2 Apoc. Jas. Second Apocalypse of James (NHC V,4) 2 Apol. Justin, Second Apology Acts Pet. Acts of Peter An. Tertullian, De anima Apoc. Adam Apocalypse of Adam (NHC V,5) Apoc. Paul Apocalypse of Paul (NHC V,2) Apoc. Pet. Apocalypse of Peter (NHC VII,3) Apol. Plato, Apology Comm. Jo. Origen, Commentarii in evangelium Joannis Disc. Epictetus, Discourses Fug. Tertullian, De fuga in persecutione Gos. Thom. Gospel of Thomas Haer. Irenaeus, Adversus haereses Hist. eccl. Eusebius, Historia ecclesiastica Ign. Eph. Ignatius, To the Ephesians Ign. Smyrn. Ignatius, To the Smyrnaeans Ign. Trall. Ignatius, To the Trallians Ign. Rom Ignatius, To the Romans Mart. Ascen. Isa. Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah Mart. Pol. Martyrdom of Polycarp NHC Nag Hammadi Codex NRSV New Revised Standard Version Paed. Clement of Alexandria, Paedagogus Pass. Perp. Passion of Perpetua and Felicitas Phil. Polycarp, To the Philippians Protr. Clement of Alexandria, Protrepticus Quis div. Clement of Alexandria, Quis dives salvetur Scorp. Tertullian, Scorpiace Strom. Clement of Alexandria, Stromateis Testim. Truth Testimony of Truth (NHC IX,3) Treat. Seth Second Treatise of the Great Seth (NHC VII,2) vi Chapter 1 Multiple Martyrdoms and Early Christian Identities Likening false Christians to scorpions that sting in subtle, yet destructive ways, Tertullian claims in his invective-filled Scorpiace that it is precisely during times of persecution, when the faith is most tested, that the behavior of the “heretics” diverges from that of the “true Christians.” Writing in Carthage, North Africa around the turn of the third century, he reports, “the gnostics break out, then the Valentinians creep forth; then all the opponents of martyrdom bubble up.” Tertullian further points out that while he and his fellow Christians are experiencing the “intense heat” of persecution, involving fire, swords, torture, imprisonment and so forth, the “heretics go about as usual” (Scorp. I.5.7). It seems that some among the Christian community remain unscathed by Roman officials. Tertullian posits fear as the explanation of their behavior; such Christians are essentially weak and seek escape from persecution accordingly. He also suggests that their failure to experience, or perhaps celebrate, a martyr’s death calls their allegiance to the faith into question. For Tertullian, responses to persecution distinguish “false” from “true” Christians. It is, of course, possible and perhaps likely that fear as well as certain beliefs compelled a fair number of Christians to avoid or easily escape encounters with Roman authorities and thus avoid martyrdom. But certain early Christian texts permit a closer look at the evidence for this distinctive behavior and, more specifically, the discourse associated with it. Tertullian’s comments reflect a broader trend in early Christian literature that associates approaches to martyrdom with proper Christian identity. By examining texts that reflect alternative voices in this significant early Christian debate, the current project seeks to better understand what prompted such less-than-enthusiastic approaches to martyrdom and how they intersect with emerging group identities and related boundaries in early Christianity. Three early Christian texts that reflect diverse approaches to suffering and martyrdom in the late second and early third centuries—Clement of Alexandria’s Stromateis, Book IV; the Coptic Apocalypse of Peter (NHC VII,3); and the Testimony of Truth (NHC IX,3)—serve as the basis for this project. I am especially interested in the ways the authors evaluate the threat of persecution, question the value of suffering, and construct distinctive means of witnessing Christ,