INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND COMMUNICATIVE STRATEGIES FOR PEACE AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT AMONG ZIMBABWEAN NDEBELES: A CASE OF SILOBELA DISTRICT BY FAITH SIBANDA Submitted in accordance to the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY DEGREE In the subject of AFRICAN LANGUAGES At the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROFESSOR D. E. MUTASA CO-PROMOTER: PROFESSOR S. NYOTA NOVEMBER 2018 DECLARATION Student Number: 55724388 I, Faith Sibanda, declare that Indigenous Knowledge and Communicative Strategies for Peace and Conflict Management Among Zimbabwean Ndebeles: A Case of Silobela District is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. 05/12/2018 SIGNATURE DATE i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I praise the almighty for giving me strength to start and finish this project. I also wish to express my gratitude for the profound guidance that I received from my two patient and discreet supervisors, Prof Davie Mutasa and Prof Shumirai Nyota. I am also indebted to UNISA Financial Aid Bureau for assisting me financially. I also thank the computer technical assistance I received form Walkins Manangazira, Fanuel Ncube, and Elvis Masvusvu. Doctor Garfy Sithole, Advocate Tendai Chaibva, Lawrence Mandava, Tafadzwa Nyikadzino, Mphathisi Moyo, Mrs Sibusisiwe Nyoni and Ntandoyenkosi Sikhosana did a sterling job in editing the thesis at its different stages and for that I feel humbled. I am also grateful to the Great Zimbabwe University Research Department for its assistance and guidance. I want to also extend my heartfelt thanks to my colleagues in the Department of African Languages and Literature for the moral, academic and social support they extended to me during the process. Special recognition also goes to Prof E. S. Gudhlanga, Prof G Makaudze, Dr Philip Mpofu and Dr Nozizwe Dlamini for the constructive criticism, support and encouragement throughout the research process. I also want to extend my heartfelt thanks to the staff members from Lower Gwelo High and Primary Schools as well as people from Silobela for participating in the study through answering questions and giving relevant advice. May I end by appreciating all the support I got from my friends and entire Mtshangane family for encouraging me all the way. ii DEDICATION This work is dedicated to my wife Thokozani, children Nontokozo and Njabulo together with my entire family and friends. iii Abstract Indigenous knowledge systems are ―a body or bodies of knowledge‖ which Africans have survived on for a very long time (Mapara, 2010). This study intends to examine the various communicative and indigenous strategies that are employed by the Zimbabwean Ndebeles in issues of peace and conflict management. It is necessitated by the realisation that there is an increase in conflict in the region and country as a result of political and socio-economic challenges. The study adopts a bottom-up approach where conflict management becomes a process that starts from the grassroots going outward. This should also provide an opportunity to demonstrate that indigenous people are as sophisticated as every other society in dealing with their challenges (Warren, 1991). At the same time, it seeks to examine effectiveness of the indigenous and communicative conflict management strategies used by the Ndebele people. The study makes use of research questionnaires and interviews as well as descriptive and content analysis for data gathering and analysis respectively. The main theoretical concept guiding this study is ubuntu because it is considered best for Afrocentric approach to African studies. This is emphasised by Moyo and Lantern (2015:103) who state that ―... the philosophy of ubuntu should be the guiding philosophy in a Zimbabwe poisoned by ill-understood and often ill- digested ontological philosophies of individual rights that give rise to selfishness, violence, fragmentation and the sterile, barren philosophy of each man for himself‖ which continues to tear our society apart. The study focuses mainly on the Ndebele speaking communities in Silobela District of Zimbabwe. The study helps the nation in combating and addressing cases of conflict by ushering in the cultural dimension which is albeit not foreign in the worldview of the local people. This compliments all other efforts being made by the government to address socio-political challenges. By documenting (indigenous knowledge systems) that which has been otherwise ignored and side-lined for a long time, the study is part of an on-going process of mental decolonisation of the African people at the same time empowering them to face a globalising world with confidence and pride. iv KEY WORDS Indigenous knowledge, reconciliation, cultural beliefs, conflict management, African religion, ubuntu, social cohesion, cultural emancipation, decolonisation. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration i Acknowledgements ii Dedication iii Abstract iv Key Words v Table of Contents vi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Preamble 1 1.2 Statement of the problem 4 1.3 Aim of the Study 9 1.3.1 Research Objectives 9 1.3.2 Research Questions 9 1.4 Justification of Research 10 1.5 Scope of Study 12 1.6 Conclusion 12 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction 14 2.2 Warped Eurocentric Views about African Worldviews 16 2.3 Defining Indigenous Knowledge 18 2.4 The Importance of Indigenous Knowledge Systems 22 2.5 Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Conflict Management 24 2.6 Conclusion 53 CHAPTER 3: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 3.1 Introduction 55 3.1.1 The Importance of a Relevant Theoretical Framework 55 3.2 Theoretical framework 56 3.2.1. Ubuntu/Unhu 57 3.2.2 Postcolonial Theory 63 3.2.3 Conflict Theory 71 3.2.4 Reconciliation Theory 74 3.3 Conclusion 80 vi CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODS 4.1 Introduction 81 4.2 Research Methods 81 4.3 Research design 82 4.4 Qualitative research design 83 4.5 Primary Sources 89 4.5.1 Interviews 90 4.5.2 Questionnaires 94 4.5.3 Practical observation 99 4.6 Secondary sources 102 4.7 Population and Sampling 104 4.8 Scope of Study 116 4.9 Ethical considerations 117 4.10 Conclusion 118 CHAPTER 5: DATA PRESENTATION 5.1 Introduction 120 5.2 Presentation of Data from Questionnaires 120 5.2.1 Questionnaire Response Rate 120 5.3 Distribution by Demographic Information 122 5.3.1 Distribution by Gender 122 5.3.2 Distribution by Age 123 5.3.3 Distribution by Level of Education 124 5.3.4 Distribution by Occupation 126 5.4 Responses to Questions on the Questionnaire 126 5.5 Interpretation of questionnaire responses 129 5.6 Presentation of Data from Interviews 138 5.6.1 Interview Response Rate 139 5.7 Presentation of Data gathered from Focus Group Discussions 156 5.8 Conclusion 163 vii CHAPTER 6: RESEARCH FINDINGS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION 6.1 Introduction 165 6.2: Research Themes 166 6.3 Respondents‘ views on Indigenous knowledge 168 6.4 Mediation/Negotiation 170 6.4.1 Neutrality 173 6.4.2 Confidentiality 177 6.4.3 Integrity 179 6.5 Negotiation in marriage 181 6.6 In-law relations 186 6.6.1Ubabazala (father in-law) vs umalukazana (Daughter-in-law) 190 6.6.2 Umamazala (mother-in-law) vs umkhwenyana (Son-in-Law) 195 6.6.3 Social responsibilities of Umkhwenyana (son-in-law) 199 6.7 Kinship Ties 202 6.7.1Imuli (the family) 205 6.7.2 Abazawethu (Cousins) 207 6.7.3 Aunts and Uncles 209 6.7.4 The Elderly 211 6.7.5 Umama (The Mother) 214 6.8 Spirituality in conflict management 217 6.8.1Ukubuyisa (bringing home the spirit of the dead) 219 6.8.2 Ukuthethela (Appeasing the spirits) 222 6.8.3 Ingozi/Uzimu 227 6.8.4 Role of spirit mediums/traditional healers in conflict management 233 6.9 Oral literature as a conflict management strategy 243 6.9.1 Proverbs and wise-sayings 244 6.10 Reconciliation 249 6.10.1Ukumuka 256 6.10.2 Ukukhumisana Umlotha 261 6.11 Role of traditional leadership in conflict management 268 6.12 Conclusion 280 viii CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSION 7.1 Introduction 282 7.2 Research findings 282 7.3 Recommendations 286 7.3.1 Recommendations for future practice 286 7.3.2 Recommendations for future research 287 References 288 Appendices 306 ix CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1. Preamble This topic, Indigenous knowledge and communicative Strategies for Peace and Conflict Management among Zimbabwean Ndebeles: A Case of Silobela District is drawn from the field of African indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) which is a fairly new area of study whose major thrust and focus is African indigenous knowledge and its contribution as a basis for sustainable livelihoods and development of indigenous societies. The topic is based on various communicative methods such as proverbs, folktales, riddles, taboos and other literary aspects of language which have been traditionally utilised as peace and conflict management mechanisms among the Ndebele people. African indigenous knowledge systems are a fairly new field of study especially in Africa owing to the negative effects of the colonial system which viewed almost all traditional institutions of the African people as heathen and backward. The sad historical contact between Africa and the Western coloniser left a deep lack of confidence in not only the social, religious or physical institutions but even in the cultural structures which previously guided the indigenous African societies. The colonisation systems entrenched in them a sense of lack of confidence and worked so hard to destroy any form of self-actualisation which they could possibly have had. Among those cultural aspects affected were the once vibrant but helpful indigenous knowledge systems although they remained resilient as highlighted by Mapara (2009:139) who says: The fact that they did not die as a result of the conquest makes it clear that while conquests were only largely military, they were also meant to purge (attempt to disturb) the colonies of what were referred to as heathen and backward practices, they failed to displace and dislodge some knowledge systems of indigenes.