“THE BITTER, FREEZING HOURS OF NIGHT”: AN INVESTIGATION OF COLD INJURY SUSCEPTIBILITY IN THE POST-CIVIL WAR SEVENTH CAVALRY ____________ A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of California State University, Chico ____________ In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Master of Arts in Anthropology ____________ by Katie Cohan Spring 2011 “THE BITTER, FREEZING HOURS OF NIGHT”: AN INVESTIGATION OF COLD INJURY SUSCEPTIBILITY IN THE POST-CIVIL WAR SEVENTH CAVALRY A Thesis by Katie Cohan Spring 2011 APPROVED BY THE DEAN OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND VICE PROVOST FOR RESEARCH: Katie Milo, Ed.D. APPROVED BY THE GRADUATE ADVISORY COMMITTEE: _________________________________ P. Willey, Ph.D., Chair _________________________________ Eric J. Bartelink, Ph.D. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this study could not have been possible without my thesis committee: Dr. P Willey and Dr. Eric Bartelink. I would like to thank Dr. Willey and Dr. Bartelink for their advice and encouragement over the past few years. To the rest of the Department of Anthropology at California State University, Chico, I would like to thank you for challenging me and helping me become a better student and researcher. Thanks are also due to the following people and agencies for offering their advice, time, and resources to help me complete this project: The Denver Public Library Western History and Genealogy Department in Colorado, Dr. Patrick Collison, Mr. John Doerner (Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, Crow Agency, MT), Mr. Scott Larkin (Fort Abraham Lincoln Foundation, Mandan, ND), Mr. Billy Markland, Dr. Colleen Milligan, Dr. Douglas Scott, Mrs. Natalie Umphlett (High Plains Regional Climate Center, Lincoln, NE), Mrs. Sandra Wiche (National Weather Service, Bismarck, ND), and Mr. Greg Wysk (State Historical Society of North Dakota, Bismarck, ND). I would like to thank my family for their unending support during this period of my life. Their encouragement and understanding has meant so much. I must also thank Patrick Raley, for being my partner in crime from the second I stepped foot into graduate school. I could not have made it through the program without his confidence in me, and I hope we have many more adventures to come. Also, to my friends who were always there to enjoy life with me when I had a free minute, I cannot thank you enough. iii I must also acknowledge the men and women associated with the Seventh Cavalry during the 1800s. Researching their lives and experiences has been fascinating, and I could not have completed this project without the use of their personal data and historical accounts. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Acknowledgments ...................................................................................................... iii List of Tables.............................................................................................................. vii List of Figures............................................................................................................. xi Abstract....................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER I. Introduction.............................................................................................. 1 Purpose of Study........................................................................... 1 Expectations ................................................................................. 2 Outline of Thesis .......................................................................... 4 Summary....................................................................................... 5 II. Background............................................................................................... 7 The Post-Civil War Cavalry ......................................................... 7 Skin Color in the Seventh Cavalry Sample .................................. 19 Summary....................................................................................... 20 III. Literature Review..................................................................................... 21 Cold Injury Hypothesis................................................................. 21 Additional Variables that Influence Cold Injury Susceptibility... 26 Cold Injuries ................................................................................. 32 Summary....................................................................................... 34 IV. Materials and Methods ............................................................................. 35 Data Compilation.......................................................................... 35 Statistical Analyses....................................................................... 38 Seventh Cavalry Methods............................................................. 39 v CHAPTER PAGE Cold Injury Patient Methods ........................................................ 46 Summary....................................................................................... 51 V. Results...................................................................................................... 53 Seventh Cavalry Descriptive Statistics......................................... 53 Cold Injury Patient Extrinsic Factors ........................................... 65 Cold Injury Patient Intrinsic Factors ............................................ 88 Summary....................................................................................... 100 VI. Discussion................................................................................................. 103 Cold Injury Patient Extrinsic Factors ........................................... 103 Cold Injury Patient Intrinsic Factors ............................................ 115 Additional Variables that Influence Cold Injury Susceptibility......................................................................... 120 Alternative Hypotheses Regarding Variation in Skin Pigmentation ......................................................................... 123 Seventh Cavalry Material Challenges .......................................... 126 Directions for Future Research..................................................... 131 Summary....................................................................................... 135 VII. Summary and Conclusion......................................................................... 138 Summary....................................................................................... 138 Conclusion.................................................................................... 143 References Cited......................................................................................................... 145 vi LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE 1. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Variables Hypothesized to Be Related to Cold Injuries ................................................................................... 4 2. Postings Where Troopers Experienced Cold Injuries............................... 11 3. Seventh Cavalry Nativity Locations by Temperature Groups.................. 41 4. Nature of Discharge by Category ............................................................. 42 5. Rank at the Time of Discharge by Category............................................. 43 6. Complexion Terms and Definitions.......................................................... 44 7. Complexion Categories and Terms........................................................... 46 8. Seventh Cavalry Non-Cold Injured and Cold-Injured Patient Frequencies ......................................................................................... 47 9. Inconsistent Admittance and Release Periods for Seventh Cavalry Cold Injuries.......................................................................... 48 10. Seventh Cavalry Frequencies of Cold Injury Cases by Enlistment Period .................................................................................................. 50 11. Single and Multiple Cases of Cold Injury for Individuals in the Seventh Cavalry............................................................................ 50 12. Joseph Bates’s Multiple Cold Injury Cases During the Same Enlistment Period................................................................................ 51 13. Seventh Cavalry Birthplace Frequencies Contrasting U.S.-born and Foreign-born Troopers ................................................................. 54 14. Seventh Cavalry U.S.-Born Troopers’ Birthplaces and Frequencies ....... 55 vii TABLE PAGE 15. Seventh Cavalry Foreign-Born Troopers’ Birthplaces and Frequencies ......................................................................................... 56 16. Seventh Cavalry Troopers’ Birthplace Frequencies Grouped by Temperature ................................................................................... 57 17. Seventh Cavalry U.S.-Born Troopers’ Birthplace Frequencies, Grouped by Temperature .................................................................... 58 18. Seventh Cavalry Foreign-Born Troopers’ Birthplace Frequencies, Grouped by Temperature .................................................................... 60 19. Descriptive Statistics of Seventh Cavalry Troopers’ Enlistment Ages in Years...................................................................................... 61 20. Descriptive Statistics of Seventh Cavalry Troopers’ Statures in Inches .................................................................................................