A MORAL IMPERATIVE: THE ROLE OF AMERICAN BLACK CHURCHES IN INTERNATIONAL ANTI-APARTHEID ACTIVISM by Phyllis Slade Martin A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of The Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Committee: Dr. Benedict Carton, Dissertation Director Dr. Spencer Crew, Committee Member Dr. Robert E. Edgar, Howard University Committee Member Dr. Yevette Richards Jordan, Committee Member Dr. Cynthia A. Kierner, Program Director Dr. Deborah A. Boehm-Davis, Dean College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date: Spring Semester 2015 George Mason University Fairfax, VA A Moral Imperative: The Role of American Black Churches in International Anti- Apartheid Activism A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Phyllis Slade Martin Master of Arts George Mason University, 2003 Director: Benedict Carton, Professor Department of History Spring Semester 2015 George Mason University Fairfax, VA This work is licensed under a creative commons attribution-noderivs 3.0 unported license. ii DEDICATION Dedicated in loving memory of my parents John Waymon Slade and Ruth Wilson Slade. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Bringing the stories of black American church people to the forefront was made possible by leaders who contributed to the South African liberation struggle. I thank theologian James H. Cone, the Reverends Wyatt Tee Walker, Tyrone Pitts, and Bernice Powell Jackson; the founders Sylvia Hill, George Houser, and Cecelie Counts; the activists and parishioners Adwoa Dunn-Mouton, Mary Gresham, Mark Harrison, Maghan Keita, Richard Knight, Mankekolo Mahlangu-Ngcobo, and Nkechi Taifa. Your stories shed new light on U.S. anti-apartheid activism. Many of the respondents provided invaluable resources and introduced me to other activists. I am thankful for their generosity of spirit. I am grateful to Dr. Benedict Carton (Robert T. Hawkes Professor of History), my dissertation director and mentor, who guided me through the long academic journey that produced this dissertation. I thank my committee members Dr. Yevette Richards Jordan and Dr. Spencer Crew (Clarence J. Robinson Professor). Their insight and special expertise enriched my scholarship. Howard University Professor, Dr. Robert Edgar, was equally instrumental; he introduced me to key figures in the anti-apartheid movement and offered invaluable first-hand perspectives. The late Dr. Lawrence W. Levine started as my dissertation director. He is gratefully acknowledged. His brilliant scholarship and deep kindness encouraged me to seek a Ph.D. in History. Several important archives and libraries became my home away from home over the years. I thank Jo Ellen El Bashir, Ida E. Jones, Tywanna Worley, and Richard Jenkins of the Moorland Spingarn Research and Resource Center of Howard University. The Amistad Research Center at Tulane University opened its doors to me. There, I acknowledge the contributions of Lee Hampton, Christopher Harter, Andrew Salinas, and Laura Thomson. I am indebted to Connie Stokes and Leslie Jones of St. Luke’s Episcopal Church Archives in Washington, D.C. The George Washington University Gelman Library manuscript division granted me access to invaluable resources. Mwiza Munthali of TransAfrica’s Research Room in Washington, D.C. located key documents. Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan provided key research assistance. Richard Knight’s digital African Activist Archive (Michigan State University) is also gratefully acknowledged. Finally, George Mason University libraries and the Prince George’s County Memorial Library System provided me with countless resources and a quiet place to read and write. iv I thank the GMU Department of History and Art History for supporting me with McKinnon-Morton Dissertation Fellowship travel grants. The GMU Provost’s Graduate Program Dissertation Completion Grant funded a critical year of writing. I would like to express my special appreciation to Nicole Roth and Sharon Bloomquist for guiding me through the Ph.D. History program. Most important, I am deeply thankful to my family and friends. Dr. Elinor Des Verney Sinnette, my mentor and friend, offered encouragement and taught me how to conduct oral history. Ailsa Ware Burnett’s gift, We Were Always Free: The Maddens of Culpepper County Virginia, inspired me to pursue my research. To Marian V. Wilson and Jody Lynn Allen, I say thank you for your long and supportive friendship. Jody, you tirelessly read my dissertation; you are a generous and meticulous scholar. I am also grateful to my children’s spouses. My daughter-in-law, Alina Martin, gave me use of her personal computer. My son-in-law, Dave Parent, proofread chapters and offered timely technical assistance. The joys of my life—my children Christina (Martin) Parent, Charles P. Martin Jr, and Christopher Allen Martin—inspire me in countless ways. Your love and support sustain me. I am blessed and grateful to have you in my life. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page List of Figures ............................................................................................................. viii List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... ix Abstract ........................................................................................................................... x Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 Race, Gender, and Religion .......................................................................................... 7 Oral History ............................................................................................................... 12 Historiography ........................................................................................................... 15 Methodology .............................................................................................................. 37 Chapter One: Radicals, Race, and the Cold War: The Council on African Affairs (1937– 1955) ................................................................................................................ 40 The Founders ............................................................................................................. 41 The Roots................................................................................................................... 44 Organization .............................................................................................................. 58 The Rift Begins .......................................................................................................... 72 Ideology ..................................................................................................................... 74 The Black Faith Community and the Cold War .......................................................... 84 Friends Turn Away .................................................................................................... 93 Key Accomplishments ............................................................................................. 101 Chapter Two: “A Common Enemy”: The American Committee on Africa (1953–2001) ........................................................................................................................ 104 Protestant, Pacifist, and Predominantly White .......................................................... 105 Race, Gender, and Radical Pacifism ......................................................................... 123 Organization Strategies and Programs ...................................................................... 137 Faith In Action: ACOA and Black American Church People .................................... 162 vi Key Accomplishments ............................................................................................. 193 Chapter Three: Protests, Politics, and Power: TransAfrica’s Free South Africa Movement (1984 – 1990) ................................................................................................... 197 Foundations of TransAfrica ...................................................................................... 202 Protests, Arrests, and Mass Mobilization .................................................................. 218 Capitalizing and Steering Media Coverage ............................................................... 226 Women’s Leadership: On the Front Lines ................................................................ 229 Special Campaign to Boycott Corporations: Shell Oil .............................................. 233 Beyond the Daily Protests: Campaigns and Strategies .............................................. 236 The Anti-Apartheid Community Response to FSAM Strategy .................................. 240 Pastors, Parishioners, and Protests ............................................................................ 247 Cold War: Reagan’s Policy of “Constructive Engagement” ...................................... 263 Sanctioning South Africa ......................................................................................... 270 Key Accomplishments ............................................................................................