REMOTE SENSING OF TROPICAL COASTAL WATERS: STUDY OF THE BERAU ESTUARY, EAST KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA Wiwin Ambarwulan September 2010 Examining Committee: prof.dr. F.D. van der Meer University of Twente prof.dr. A.K. Skidmore University of Twente prof.dr. P. Hoekstra Utrecht University prof.dr.ir. J. Sopaheluwakan Indonesian Institute of Sciences ITC dissertation number 173 ITC, P.O. Box 6, 7500 AA Enschede, The Netherlands ISBN 978-90-6164-292-3 Cover designed by Wiwin Ambarwulan Printed by ITC Printing Department Copyright © 2010 by Wiwin Ambarwulan REMOTE SENSING OF TROPICAL COASTAL WATERS: STUDY OF THE BERAU ESTUARY, EAST KALIMANTAN, INDONESIA DISSERTATION to obtain the degree of doctor at the University of Twente, on the authority of the rector magnificus, prof.dr. H. Brinksma, on account of the decision of the graduation committee, to be publicly defended on Friday, September 3, 2010 at 16:45 hrs by Wiwin Ambarwulan born in Jakarta, Indonesia on June 29, 1960 This thesis is approved by Prof. Dr. Ing. Wouter Verhoef, promotor Dr. Ir. Chris M.M. Mannaerts, assistant promotor Acknowledgements The research presented in this PhD thesis has been carried out at the department of Water Resources, Faculty of Geo-Information Science and Earth Observation (ITC), University of Twente. The path towards this thesis spans several years of work and many people have been involved and contributed to the presented ideas and understanding gained. The author acknowledges his debt to those who have helped along the way and influenced the formation of the understanding of and the approach to representation of remote sensing for tropical coastal water presented in this thesis. In first of all I would like to express my sincerest thanks and highest appreciation to my promotor Prof. Dr. Ing. Wouter Verhoef for his invaluable advice and assistance which greatly improved the research and manuscripts of the PhD thesis. He gave me untiring help during my difficult moments. I wish also to express my warm and sincere thanks to my assistant promotor, Dr. Ir. Chris M.M. Mannaerts for his guidance and motivation. He is the initiator of this research and he supported me day to day in any situation. I owe my sincere gratitude to Dr Mhd Suhyb Salama, who gave me the opportunity to work with him in bio-optical model, he helped me in processing the field data. My gratitude goes also to Dr. Hans van der Woerd, who patiently and from a distance helps me in the completion of the paper. The financial support of the WOTRO, the Netherlands is gratefully acknowledged. I should also acknowledge many people of Berau Research Cluster, East Kalimantan Program, especially Prof. Dr. Piet Hoekstra who lead this research cluster and gave me some scientific advice. I should also acknowledge BAKOSURTANAL, Indonesia for giving me the permission of sabbatical year during this research. Thanks for Prof. Dr. Z(Bob) Su, the head of Water Resources Department, who gave me possibility to do this research in his department. I also acknowledge Dr. T.W. Hobma for his contribution in preparing doctoral proposal. i I am grateful for the support of Secretary of the Graduate Programme, Loes Colenbrander for her support, especially at the last part of my research. I warmly thank to the team of secretariat of the Department of Water Resources: Anke Walet and Tina Butt-Castro. Thank you to Lichun Wang, Joris Timmermans and Marcel van Helvoirt for their help in MODTRAN and other technical problems. I should also acknowledge ITC helpdesk team, who gave me the way out from many computer problems. I also thank to Dr. Annelies Hommersom, who helped me in laboratory analysis at Institute for Environmental Studies, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. Thanks to all the colleagues of the department of Water Resources, who made the office work as a pleasant place during my research. Special thanks go to the colleagues with whom I shared the office: Dr. Alemseged T Haile, Fouad Khaier, and Syarif Budhiman. I also enjoyed the birthday cake, coffee, and discussions with all PhD students in ITC, Laura Dente, Mariela Yevenes, Jeniffer Kinoti Mutiga, Mireia Romaguera, Sumbal Bahar Saba, Claudia Pittiglio, Lal Muthuwatta, Kitsiri Weligepolage, Leonardo Reyes, Alain Pascal Frances, Rogier van der Velde, Zeng Yijian, Lei Zhong, Mustafa Gökmen and others. The fieldworks in Berau Regency, East Kalimantan Province were only possible with the help of many people. Many thanks go to all the people in LIPI, BAKOSURTANAL, LAPAN and BPPT for their support. In particular, I would like to thank Syachrul Arief (BAKOSURTANAL), Ahmad Maryanto (LAPAN), Muhammad Dayuf Yusuf (BPPT) and Abdul Halim for their help during the fieldworks. I thank to Ibu Dewi Pikaar and Pak Jaap Pikaar who have accepted me as a family during the years my stay in Enschede. They support me, sent me the delicious Indonesia food. Thank goes to my friends from Indonesia who have been sharing the joys and difficult moments during my PhD research, especially Tyas Basuki, Anas Fauzi, Winardi, Arif Wismadi, Nugroho Christanto and Dr. Ella Meilianda. ii Finally I would like to thank my family. The encouragement and support from my beloved husband Dr. Widiatmaka, DAA and our always positive and joyful son Indrawan Prima Prakarsa is a powerful source of inspiration and energy. A special thought is devoted to my parents, my parent in law, my sisters and brothers for a never-ending support. iii iv List of Acronyms ANN : Artificial Neural Network AOP : Apparent Optical Property AATSR : Advanced Along-Track Scanning Radiometer ASAR : Advanced Synthetic Aperture Radar ATSR : Along-Track Scanning Radiometer ATBD : Algorithm Theoretical Basis Document BEAM : Basic ENVISAT Toolbox for (A)ATSR and MERIS Chl-a : Chlorophyll a pigment C2R : Case-2 Regional CDOM : Colored Dissolved Organic Matter CZCS : Coastal Zone Color Scanner BAKOSURTANAL : Badan Koordinasi Survei dan Pemetaan Nasional - National Coordinating Agency for Surveys and Mapping ERS : European Remote Sensing Satellite BMG : Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika - Meteorological and Geophysical Agency EKP : East Kalimantan Program ENVISAT : European Environmental Satellite ESDM : Energi Sumberdaya Mineal - Indonesian ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources ESA : European Space Agency FR : Full Resolution FUB : Free University Berlin FWHM : Full-Width at Half Maximum GF/F : Glass Fiber/ Filter GPS : Global Positioning System GSM : Garver-Siegel-Maritorena HYDROPT : HYDROLIGHT OPTimization ICoMaR : Indonesian Consortium on Coastal and Marine Research IOP : Inherent Optical Property v IOCCG : International Ocean Color Coordinating Group IRS-1C Indian Remote Sensing satellite ITB. : Institut Teknologi Bandung - Bandung Institute of Technology - ITF : Indonesia Through-Flow K-M : Kubelka-Munk KNAW : Koninklijke Nederlandse Academie van Wetenschappen - Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences LAPAN : Lembaga Penerbangan dan Antariksa Nasional - National Institute for Aeronautics and Space - LIPI : Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonsia - Indonesian Institute of Science LTOA : Top-Of-Atmosphere total radiance LUT : Look-Up Table MERIS : Medium Resolution Imaging Spectrometer MODIS : Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer MODTRAN : MODerate spectral resolution atmospheric TRANsmittance MPA : The Berau Marine Protected Area NASA : National Space Agency NIOZ : Koninklijk Nederlands Instituut voor Zeeonderzoek - Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research NWO : NWO-Earth and Life Sciences (ALW), pH : the degree of acidity or basicity of a solution QAA : Quasi Analytical Algorithm RGB : Red Green Blue RMSE : Root Mean Square Error RR : Reduced Resolution REVAMP : Regional Validation of MERIS Chlorophyll products in North Sea coastal waters. ROFI : Region of Fresh water Influence SDA : spectral decomposition algorithm SIOP : Specific Inherent Optical Property SeaWiFS : Sea-viewing Wide Field-of-view Sensor vi SMAC : Simplified Method for Atmospheric Correction SRTM : Shuttle Radar Topography Mission SUKM : Spectral unmixing with the coupled radiative transfer model and inverse K-M model 6S : Second Simulation of the Satellite Signal in the Solar Spectrum TOW : Top-of-Water TOA : Top-of-Atmosphere TSM : Total Suspended Matter UNESCO. : The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNMUL, : Universitas Mulawarman - Mulawarman University in Samarinda - VISAT : BEAM’s visualisation, analysing and processing application WOTRO : Foundation for the Advancement of Tropical Research WWF : World Wide Fund for Nature vii viii List of Symbols Symbol Description aCDOM Absorption of CDOM a(λ) Absorption coefficients aw(λ) Absorption of pure water ax* Specific absorption spectra of TSM or particle ay* Specific absorption spectra of CDOM aw(λ) Absorption and scattering of water molecules, * * Specific absorption spectra of phytoplankton aChl or ai a1 Amount of haze above the standard in arbitrary units a2 Amount of sediment in arbitrary units A Spherical albedo bb(λ) Backscattering coefficients bb,w(λ Backscattering coefficients of pure water bb,TSM Backscattering coefficient of particle or TSM * Specific backscattering coefficient of small particles b ,Sb * Specific backscattering coefficient of large particles b ,Lb * Specific backscattering coefficient of TSM b ,TSMb CChl or Ci or Cph Concentration of phytoplankton CTSM Concentration of TSM CS Concentration of small particle − E u Upward irradiance just beneath the water surface − E d Downward irradiance just beneath the water surface + E d Downward irradiance