FOOD DESERTS AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD INSECURITY IN THE INFORMAL SETTLEMENTS OF WINDHOEK, NAMIBIA Town NDEYAPO NDEYAFETWA MARTHA NICKANOR A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Environmental and Geographical Science in Fulfillment of the Requirements for theCape Degree DOCTOR OFof PHILOSOPHY University of Cape Town Cape Town, South Africa UniversityAugust 2013 i The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University Declaration I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and effort and that it has not been submitted anywhere for any award. Where others contribution and sources of information have been used, they have been duly acknowledged. …………………………………… Ndeyapo NM Nickanor ii MAIN SUPERVISORS: PROF. JONATHAN CRUSH AND PROF. SUSAN PARNELL CO-SUPERVISOR: DR. JANE BATTERSBY–LENNARD iii Abstract Rapid urbanization and rising urban poverty characterize much of Sub-Saharan Africa in the 21st Century. Africa’s urban transition provides the context within which this thesis examines the causes and consequences of poverty and food insecurity in the growing informal settlements of Windhoek, Namibia. Rapid urbanization in Windhoek has been accompanied by limited industrialization with few job opportunities in the formal employment sector. Moreover, the informal sector has not been able to absorb the ever rising volume of migrants from the rural areas, increasing urban poverty and food insecurity among the most vulnerable group in the urban environment: female-centred households in informal settlements. The informal settlements in Windhoek are an ideal site in which to examine the struggle for food security and other basic needs by poor women. Despite the accumulated literature on the food security of female-centred households, much of this work has focused on the rural sector and has paid little attention to the contribution of women to food security in the urban areas, and the strategies they adopt to eke out a living. This study combines qualitative and quantitative research methods in order to understand the factors that determine the food security status of female-centred households and to explore their strategies to access food and build resilience to food insecurity. Firstly, the thesis demonstrates that female-centred households in the informal settlements are poorer and more food insecure than all other types of household. Secondly, these households source food from a variety of sources including supermarkets, the informal food economy and rural-urban food transfers. Urban agriculture is completely unimportant as a food source. Thirdly, formal food sources such as supermarkets may offer cheaper quality food but they are located too far from the informal settlements for regular use. Fourthly, female-centred households rely heavily on the informal food sources, both as consumers and as a source of income for their own households. The informal food economy is dominated by women who find it extremely difficult to access formal sector jobs. Fifthly, food borrowing, sharing of food with neighbours and consumption of food provided by neighbours are increasingly important food sources in coping with food shortages. This thesis also addresses the broader question of whether the informal settlements of this African city qualify as “food deserts” and whether this concept (developed to describe inner-city neighbourhoods in Europe and North America) helps to shed light on the food security situation in Namibia. The thesis concludes that the concept needs to be redefined to be appropriate to African realities. The fundamental problem in the African city is not lack of spatial access to formal sector outlets such as supermarkets. Supermarkets are distant but the informal economy ensures that sufficient and diverse food is available in the informal settlements. In Windhoek’s food deserts, as one respondent noted, the problem is not food but income. iv Acknowledgements “If I have seen further it is by standing on the shoulders of giants” (Newton’s letter to Hooke, February 5, 1676) First and foremost I would like to thank the Almighty God for His unceasing protection, guidance and wisdom. The road was long and winding but He was with me every step of the way. I am grateful to my supervisor Prof. Jonathan Crush, for his unwavering support, insightful skills, academic guidance and encouragement in making this thesis a reality and to Prof. Susan Parnell and Dr. Jane-Battersby-Lennard for their academic guidance and support. The influence of Prof. Bruce Frayne and Prof. Wade Pendleton’s extensive work in Namibia and Windhoek is obvious and my thanks for their suggestions and comments during the making of this thesis. I acknowledge their contribution and am indebted to them. I thank Prof. Pendleton for his enthusiasm and interest in guiding me through the methodological challenges of conducting research on women and urban food security. This thesis would not have been possible without the generous financial support provided to me by five institutions/organizations: 1) The University of Namibia (UNAM) through its Staff Development Programme, 2) the Ministry of Education in Namibia through the Education, Training Sector Improvement Programme (ETSIP) of the National Higher Council for Education in Namibia, 3) the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) UPCD Tier One program through the African Food Security Urban Network (AFSUN). 4) the Africa Initiative (AI) of the Centre for International Governance Innovation (CIGI), Waterloo, Canada and 5) the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada (AUCC)’s “Students for Development” program in the Department of Global Development Studies at Queen’s University in Kingston, Canada. For this, I am eternally grateful. Many people have contributed directly or indirectly to the making of this thesis. I owe my gratitude to Professor Jonathan Crush whom I approached while we were finalizing the funding for AFSUN. He encouraged me to take up PhD studies and ensured partial funding from AFSUN. He later took over as my main supervisor during my exchange stay in Canada. He also afforded me the opportunity to make use of his extensive network of contacts for my professional and academic development. I also extend my appreciation to Professor Marc Epprecht, the Graduate Chair and SFD Representative at the Department of Global Development Studies and Prof. Allison Goebel at Queen’s University. Prof. Mike Meadows, the Head of EGS, Dr. Pippin Anderson, the post-graduate coordinator in the EGS department at UCT provided support and encouragement. I would also like to thank Dr. Godfrey Tawodzera, Dr. Mutale Chileshe and Mary Caesar with whom I had numerous v enlightening discussions on urban food security. Thanks are also due to Sharon Adams and Shahieda. Cassandra Eberhardt, Maria Salamone and Dr. Abel Chikanda (the staff of the Southern African Research Centre at Queen’s University) for being so helpful. I must thank my uncle Mike Aindaka Mbudje who after my mother passed on took me in at a tender age and unselfishly raised me. Thank you for everything! Thanks are also due to meme Nandjila, Jacobine, Vitalis, Emily, Elizabeth, Clemmentine and Tate Ansfried Kampulu Ndalikokule. The success of the fieldwork in Windhoek is due to the following people and institutions: Research Assistants - Onesmus Angula, Josia Shikongo (late), Rosalia Matsi, Ndeyapo Mbudje, Shangelao Olivia Shikoyeni, Nelao Naimbale and Komeya Erastus who criss- crossed the informal settlements in Tobias Hainyeko, Moses Garoëb, Samora Machel and Khomasdal North constituencies listing households one-by-one. While Johannes Shigwedha, Esther Ndengu, Matilde Ukeva and Ndamononghenda Kaali assisted in organizing participants for focus group discussions in the four constituencies. Mr. Mesag Mulunga and Mr. Erick Petrus from the Ministry of Agriculture provided insights on the focus and programmes of the ministry, while Mr. Vernouman Endjala and Mr. Faniel Maanda provided information on behalf of the Municipality of Windhoek. Although it is never possible to adequately thank all the participants for their willingness to listen and provide insights on a sensitive issue of inadequate/lack food in their urban households they are deeply appreciated and acknowledged. I thank all the giants on whose shoulders I have stood, whose shoulders I am standing and on whose shoulders I will stand. And finally to my family who made sacrifices due to my frequent absence: Nande, Megameno and Ndapandula - your love, support and patience is unparalleled. vi Table of Contents Declaration .............................................................................................. ii Abstract .................................................................................................. iv Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... v Table of Contents ................................................................................... vii List of Tables .......................................................................................... xi List of Figures ....................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION