Notes 1 Sarajevo: Sunday, June 28, 1914 1 . S t r a c h a n , First World War , 3. 2 . Ibid., 3; Gilbert, First World War , 17. 3 . I am grateful to Professor Alan Jones for drawing the story of Colonel Redl to my attention. 4 . Gilbert, op. cit., 14. 5 . F i n k e l , Osman’s Dream , 21. 6 . Gilbert, op. cit., 16. 7 . Ibid., 16–7; Strachan, op. cit., 9. 2 The British Empire and the Arab World: Ambition, Austerity, and a Class Apart 1 . H i t t i , History of the Arabs , 722–6. 2 . Hopwood, Egypt , 12–3. 3 . See Owen, Middle East in the World Economy , chapters 2 , 3 , 5 , and 9 , for Egypt’s economy during this period. 4 . Hitti, op. cit., 750. 5 . M o r r i s , Heaven’s Command , 420. 6 . Hitti, op. cit., 750. 7 . L a p i d u s , History of Islamic Societies , 516–7. 8 . M c M i l l a n , Fathers and Sons , 91–2. 9 . M o r r i s , Pax Britannica , 244–5. 10 . Lapidus, op. cit., 516; Morris, ibid., 246. 11 . Kedourie, Politics in the Middle East , 157. 1 2 . M o n t a g u e , When Friday Comes , 2–3, 8–9. 13 . Hopwood, op. cit., 13. 14 . See Said, Out of Place , and Said Makdisi, Teta, Mother and Me , for an inside view of the impact of European education on Arabs. 1 5 . M o r r i s , Pax Britannica , 245. 1 6 . I b i d . , 5 1 5 . 238 NOTES 3 The French Empire and the Arab World: From the Crusades to the Civilizing Mission 1 . Lapidus, op. cit., 587. 2 . I b i d . , 5 8 7 – 8 . 3 . M a u p a s s a n t , Bel-Ami , 28. 4 . Lapidus, op. cit., 587. See also Norwich, The Middle Sea , 497. 5 . Hitti, op. cit., 636. 6 . I b i d . , 6 4 3 . 7 . I b i d . , 7 4 3 . 8 . Sebag Montefiore, Jerusalem , 312. 9 . Ibid., 318; Norwich, op. cit., 429. 1 0 . Q u o t e d f r o m N o r w i c h , i b i d . , 4 9 8 . 11 . Lapidus, op. cit., 587. 1 2 . I b i d . , 5 8 9 . 1 3 . I b i d . , 5 8 8 – 9 . 1 4 . I b i d . , 5 8 8 . 1 5 . I b i d . , 5 8 9 – 9 0 . 16 . Hitti, op. cit., 747–8. See also Said Makdisi, op. cit., 156, 176, and 186. 17 . Owen, op. cit., chapters 6 and 10 . 1 8 . H i t t i , o p . c i t . , 7 3 4 – 6 . 4 The Russian Empire and the Arab World: Religion, Royalty, and the New Rome 1 . F i g e s , Natasha’s Dance , 300. 2 . M a c C u l l o c h , A History of Christianity , 522–3. 3 . Sebag Montefiore, op. cit., 311. 4 . Finkel, op. cit., 377–9; McMillan, op. cit., 79–80. 5 . Said Makdisi, op. cit., 163. 6 . E l o n , Israelis , 50–1. As Barnet Litvinoff points out in The Burning Bush , the Jewish community was obliged to put forward a number of men as a percent- age of the population for military service (ten out of every 1,000). This was a much higher quota than that for what he calls “true” Russians who had to provide four men per 7,000. The results of recruitment of the Jews were also unfair: rich people were able to buy their sons out of it, while the poor were left to make up the numbers: The Burning Bush , 154–5. 7 . L e w i s , Jews of Islam , 6 – 9 . 5 The German Empire and the Arab World: Family Feuds and Eastern Ambitions 1 . H o b s b a w n , Age of Empire , 46–7, 174, 175, 178, 342, 345. 2 . I b i d . , 3 5 1 . 3 . Finkel, op. cit., 528. NOTES 239 6 The Ottoman Empire: How the Arab World Was Won and Lost 1 . Finkel, op. cit., 2. Similar stories were told of the Prophet Muhammad. Osman in Arabic is Uthman, which became Ottoman in English. 2 . McMillan, op. cit., 71–5. 3 . Ibid., 21–6. 4 . A b u r i s h , House of Saud , 31. 5 . I m b e r , Ottoman Empire , 125. 6 . I b i d . , 2 4 9 . 7 . McMillan, op. cit., 76–9. 8 . Q u a t a e r t , Ottoman Empire , 78–9. See also Finkel, op. cit., 127–8. 9 . I am grateful to Professor Alan Jones for drawing my attention to this. 10 . Said Makdisi, op. cit., 150, 152, and 176. 11 . These changes were also reflected in Ottoman law. See chapter 9 , this volume. 12 . Sebag Montefiore, op. cit., 342–3. 13 . Owen, op. cit., 100–10. 14 . Finkel, op. cit., 527–8. 1 5 . F r o m k i n , Peace to End All Peace , 54–5. 7 London: Tuesday, December 21, 1915 1 . For detailed and highly readable background studies of both men, see Barr, A Line in the Sand , 7–19 and 20–36. 2 . I b i d . , 8 . 3 . Fromkin, op. cit., 146. 4 . I b i d . , 1 4 6 . 5 . I b i d . 6 . Barr, op. cit., 9. 7 . Fromkin, op. cit., 147. 8 . I b i d . , 1 4 6 . 9 . Strachan, op. cit., 100. 10 . The father was a founder of the Comit é de l’Afrique Fran ç aise. The son, Charles, was treasurer of the Comit é de l’Asie Fran ç aise. See Barr, op. cit., 20, and Fromkin, op. cit., 190. 11 . Barr, op. cit., 20–1. 12 . Fromkin, op. cit., 189. 1 3 . I b i d . , 1 9 1 . 1 4 . I b i d . , 1 9 7 . 15 . Gilbert, op. cit., 244. 16 . The Russian side fell out of the equation when they left the war on November 8, 1917. 1 7 . D a n a h a r , The New Middle East , 395. 18 . Gilbert, op. cit., 123, 541. 240 NOTES 1 9 . I b i d . , 5 4 1 . 20 . Fromkin, op. cit., 166; McMillan, op. cit., 93. 21 . Ismael and Ismael, Continuity and Change , 1 . 8 The Arab World before the War: The Facts on the Ground 1 . C e s a r i , Why the West Fears Islam , 307. 2 . I b i d . , 3 0 9 . 3 . M c M i l l a n , Fathers and Sons , 141–5. 4 . Quran 2:256. The translation is from Jones, 58. 5 . See Lewis, op. cit., for a detailed study of the position of Jews in the Islamic world. 6 . Hitti, op. cit., 620. 7 . Lewis, op. cit., 42–3. 8 . This is a brief overview of the diverse nature of Islam. For a more detailed account, see Hitti, op. cit., chapter 30 “Moslem Sects,” 429–49. 9 . Tribal identities remained important enough that there was a view among the early caliphs and their supporters that only someone from the Prophet’s tribe of Quraysh was eligible to lead the community, a view that would appear to contradict the egalitarianism of Islam. 1 0 . M c M i l l a n , Mecca , 102–13, 116–25, 144–58. 11 . For details of the many dynasties that have ruled the Middle East, see Hitti, op. cit., 450–60, 461–83, 505–11, 520–5, 537–56, 617–24, 671–682, 709–18. 12 . For studies on the Umayyad era, see Blankinship, The End of the Jihad State ; Hawting, First Dynasty of Islam ; McMillan, The Meaning of Mecca ; Wellhausen, Arab Kingdom . 13 . Hitti, op. cit., 154. 1 4 . L e v e r e t t , Inheriting Syria , 2. 15 . Hitti, op. cit., 155–9. 1 6 . A l - T a b a r i , Tarikh II, 272–389. 17 . In Kufa, a movement arose called the Tawwabun , or Penitents, because of this guilt. It did not last long in the face of the Umayyad armies, but it showed the strength of feeling about leaving al-Husayn to his fate. See al-Tabari, op. cit., II 497–513, 538–71. 18 . Lapidus, op. cit., 234. 19 . Al-Tabari, op. cit., III 84–6, 99–119, 330. 2 0 . A l - Y a q u b i , Tarikh , II 289–90. See also Hitti, op. cit., 285–6. One member of the family did survive to fight another day—a grandson of the caliph Hisham named Abd al-Rahman. He escaped from Palestine through North Africa (where he had tribal connections) to Spain where his descendants founded a new Umayyad caliphate in the tenth century. 21 . Al-Tabari, op. cit., III 319–26. NOTES 241 22 . The Cordoba caliphate belonged to the Umayyad family (929–1031), see note 20; the Cairo caliphate to the Fatimid family (969–1171). 23 . Fromkin, op. cit., 450. 9 The Remaking of the Middle East: Enter the Nation-State 1 . R e y n o l d s , The Long Shadow , 5. 2 . Lewis, op. cit., 156–8, 168. 3 . Ibid., 158. The incident drew the attention—and intervention—of Britain and France. Britain saw itself as the protector of the Jewish community and intervened to help. France’s intervention was more of a hindrance to the local Jewish community.