The history of the Atlantic Salmon in Lake Ontario John R. Dymond,1 Hugh H. MacKay,2 Mary E. Burridge,3* Erling Holm,3 and Phillip W. Bird4 1Royal Ontario Museum (died 1965); 2Ontario Department of Lands & Forests (retired 1963); 3Royal Ontario Museum 100 Queen’s Park, Toronto Ontario M5S 2C6; 4Credit Valley Conservation, 1255 Old Derry Road, Mississauga, ON L5N 6R4 Ã Corresponding author: [email protected] The history of the Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar), also referred to as Salmon below, in Lake Ontario is an accumulation of authentic published accounts, which were almost completed by J. R. Dymond before his death. H. H. MacKay completed the work on Dymond’s behalf (Dymond and MacKay, unpublished, 1966), but it remained largely unknown. The present authors (MEB, EH, PWB) have sought to present an updated subset of Dymond and MacKay’s work as the history of Lake Ontario Salmon is a crucial story in the history of the Great Lakes and its fisheries. The information provided should add materially to the knowledge of the causes that led to the decline and ultimate extirpation of a fascinating and valuable fish, notwithstanding all the efforts that were made to restore it by artificial means. Keywords: fisheries, life history, over-fishing, mill dams, deforestation, Alewife How freshwater evidence that Lake Ontario was confluent with the Champlain Sea, but isostatic rebound and eastward populations originate forcing of freshwater, facilitated by glacial melt- water input to Lake Ontario, likely prevented salt- The Atlantic Salmon did not arise in Lake water invasion. Hladyniuk and Longstaffe (2016) Ontario because it was prevented from going to found no evidence that the western end of Lake sea; it was not a landlocked population until the Ontario was at any time marine. The presence of erection of the Beauharnois Dam in 1929. Atlantic two other marine species in Lake Ontario, the Salmon would have had easy access to Lake Threespine Stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) Ontario during the marine invasion of the St. and Sea Lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), does Lawrence Valley, which formed the Champlain support a marine invasion, or at least these three Sea, 10 000 to 17 000 years ago (Coleman, 1922). species did have access to Lake Ontario at some Coleman (1922) hypothesized that Lake Ontario point. Once there, they would have found an abun- was an arm of the Champlain Sea, 24 m above pre- dant food supply and ideal spawning habitat in its sent Lake Ontario. Karrow et al. (1961), however, tributaries. Freshwater races of Atlantic Salmon suggested there was no evidence for this and that are widespread in eastern North America (Power, Lake Ontario was always fresh and higher than the 1958) and were recognized as subspecies Salmo Champlain Sea. Anderson and Lewis (2012) gave salar sebago and Salmo salar ouananiche (Jordan 305 Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 22(3):305–315, 2019. Copyright # 2019 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online DOI: 10.1080/14634988.2019.1641044 306 Dymond et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 22 (2019) 305–315 Figure 1. Atlantic Salmon mount from Samuel Wilmot’s Newcastle Hatchery (ROM 23235). Courtesy of the Royal Ontario Museum # ROM. Photo Credit: Brian Boyle, MPA, FPPO. and Evermann, 1896). Both freshwater and sea- concluded that Lake Ontario Salmon more often going Atlantic Salmon are found in Lower Gambo spent two years in streams before migrating Lake, Newfoundland (Scott and Crossman, 1964). down to the lake. No obvious morphological distinction is apparent Unlike Pacific Salmon, Atlantic Salmon may between seagoing Atlantic Salmon and its fresh- spawn more than once, most often spawning in water subspecies; the only distinguishing character alternate years. Wilmot (1870) reported that is the latter remains in freshwater during its entire many Salmon entering Grafton Creek bore marks life cycle even though there is no physical barrier that he had placed there two years previously. to the sea (Power, 1958). From examining dried mounts at the Royal Ontario Museum (Figure 1), Blair (1938) con- cluded that these specimens had spent two years Life history in the lake before returning to the stream Lake Ontario Salmon followed a similar life to spawn. history pattern to those of sea Salmon except that Lake Ontario Salmon was often observed when young Salmon left the stream they migrated entering streams in spring, likely in response to downstream to Lake Ontario instead of the sea freshets (Kumlien in Goode, 1884). Salmon runs (Blair, 1938; Guiry et al., 2017). Some of these occurred in the Oswego River in June if the water young Salmon stayed in the lake for only one was sufficiently high (Smith, H., 1892). Fishing summer’s growth, feeding on abundant Cisco for Salmon was considered at its best on the “ (Coregonus artedi) and then returned to tributa- Credit River in spring with fish firm and full of ” ries as grilse weighing 1 – 1.5 kg. These preco- curd (Magrath, 1833). Simcoe (1796) wrote in “ cious grilse were nearly all males (Wilmot, her diary numbers of Indians resort here [Credit ” 1868). More frequently, young Salmon stayed in River] at this season [spring] to fish for Salmon. the lake for two summer’s growth before migrat- Bonnycastle (1842) reported that a conspicuous ing upstream to spawn. Salmon grew rapidly in run took place in the Salmon River, Ontario each Lake Ontario and sometimes reached a weight of spring and summer. 18 kg. Spawning occurred in streams over gravel shoals from mid-October into November depend- Tributary habitat suitability ing on temperature. Eggs hatched in late April to early May, and yolk sacs were absorbed in 4-6 In Ontario, Atlantic Salmon was more abun- weeks. The young parr stayed in the creek for dant in Lake Ontario’s northwest tributaries one or two years, becoming smolts at about (King, 1866). This was due, in part, to Ontario’s 13 cm and then migrated downstream to Lake Oak Ridges Moraine, which was formed approxi- Ontario. Blair (1938) and McCrimmon (1950) mately 12 000 years ago during the retreat of the Dymond et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 22 (2019) 305–315 307 Wisconsin glacier. This ridge parallels Lake Salmon tributary occurrence, and watershed num- Ontario 16 to 40 km to the north. The ridge bers correspond to Table 1. extends from the Niagara Escarpment in the west The western-most native Salmon stream in to the Trent Valley in the east. Water falling on Ontario was likely Grindstone Creek, a tributary the surface of the moraine drains vertically of Burlington Bay, as observed by Simcoe through sand and gravel, reappearing as cool, (1796). Salmon appear to have been ubiquitous in clear springs along the slopes. The substrate in the streams of the western basin and extending the streams makes excellent spawning beds for eastward to the Bay of Quinte. These included Salmon, and cover for juveniles. The general alti- Bronte Creek, Sixteen Mile Creek, Credit River, tude of the moraine is over 300 m above sea level Etobicoke Creek, Humber River, Don River, or about 230 m above Lake Ontario resulting in Highland Creek, Rouge River, Duffins Creek, an average fall of about 60 m per km. This rapid- Lynde Creek, Oshawa Creek, Black Creek, ity of flow contributes to the value of the Bowmanville Creek, Wilmot Creek, Cobourg streams. The Credit River was considered the sal- Creek, Ganaraska River, Grafton Creek, Trent mon river par excellence (Fox, 1930). River, Moira River and Salmon River (Figure 2). In New York, large cold-water systems, such Etobicoke Creek and the Humber River abounded as the Salmon River (NY) and Oswego River in Salmon (Smyth, 1799). Lynde Creek was “at were among the most productive, supporting one time widely known for its Salmon large runs of Atlantic Salmon (De Kay, 1842; abundance” (Wilmot, 1873). Samuel Wilmot had Edmunds, 1874). The Salmon River was consid- a reception house at Grafton Creek that was ered to be the largest cold-water Lake Ontario important for procuring parent fish (Wilmot, tributary and is associated with the significant 1873). The Moira and Credit rivers were identi- Tug Hill aquifer. Collins (1885) described the fied as important Salmon nursery areas to protect Salmon River as being exceedingly clear and (King, 1866). Smaller streams that were also transparent with a rapid current between flat likely utilized by Salmon, but were not noted stretches. Schultz (1810) noted that Fish Creek explicitly include Spencer, Mimico, Carruthers, had abundant Salmon and significant springs. and Gages creeks. That Salmon entered very The so-called ‘June run’ of Salmon in the small streams is indicated by Scadding’s(1873) Oswego River was likely aided by sustained sum- statement “In the rivulet below [Garrison Creek], mer flows from the Finger Lakes (Smith for some distance up the valley, before the clear- H., 1892). ing away of the woods, Salmon used to be taken at certain seasons of the year”. Old men told of Spawning tributaries having speared Salmon in the upper tributaries of the Rouge where they crossed the townline The consensus from historians was that between Markham and Whitchurch townships, at Salmon teemed in every little stream, creek, and least 24 km upstream from the lake river (Wilmot, 1869; Green, 1874). Adamson (Brodie, 1902). (1857) stated “twenty five or thirty years ago In New York, Twelve mile Creek is the first every stream tributary to the St. Lawrence from stream east of the Niagara River in which Niagara to Labrador on the north side and to the Salmon were reported (Smith H., 1892). Little Gaspe Basin on the south abounded with Sandy Creek and all tributaries between the Salmon.” Henry (1838) wrote that they were Genesee and Niagara rivers were considered speared on the shores of the Bay of Quinte, at the Salmon streams (Edmunds, 1874; Smith H., Trent River mouth, around Toronto, and the 1892).