“Coverage of the Russian-speaking minority in Latvian-language news media and its role within Russo-Latvian socio-political relations.” Madara Veipa Department of Theatre, Film and Television Studies Aberystwyth University This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Aberystwyth University 2017 Thesis Abstract This thesis explores the ways in which Latvian-language news media represents the Russian-speaking minority in Latvia and how these representations impact on the relationship between Latvian and Russian speakers in Latvia. Through an assessment of six Latvian-language news media sources, the thesis offers an understanding of the type of stories published and broadcast in Latvian-language news media. Furthermore, the thesis also analyses the Latvian-language newspaper coverage of the Language Referendum in 2012. By assessing the ways in which the referendum was discussed, the thesis establishes links between the representation of the Russian-speaking minority and the representation of Latvian national identity in the media. The analyses of the Latvian-language news media are then furthered by an analysis of interviews conducted with Latvian speakers, in which the respondents were asked to discuss their understanding of both the media and the relationship between Latvian and Russian speakers in Latvia. The thesis concludes by offering a clear outline of the way Latvian-language news media constructs stories, both those discussing Russian speakers and related issues, as well as the stories which aim to promote Latvian national identity. Furthermore, by reflecting on the interview data, the thesis also highlights existent perceptions and the way they are perpetuated by Latvian speakers, contrasting such notions with those expressed in the Latvian-language news media analysed throughout. Acknowledgements. Aged eighteen, I came home one day and said to my mum that I was going to drop out of high school because I hated it. She nodded and said “Okay, what are you going to do instead?” Surprised, I asked if she wasn’t going to try to talk me out of it. Vividly, I remember my mum giving me a look and shaking her head. “No one,” she told me. “Will ever stop you from doing something you’ve decided on.” I owe my mum a world of gratitude for all the support and help she has provided to me throughout my life. A thank you is never going to be enough to represent that. Paldies, mamma! I also should thank my dad, who will never read this thesis because it’s in English. He became a keen and excited research assistant on my fieldwork trips. I could’ve done without the camping, but there we are. I would like to thank my supervisors who have been absolutely excellent. Dr Merris Griffiths, whose sensible and always on point advice has been invaluable throughout my PhD. Professor Birgit Beumers, whose support, excellent coffee and willingness to give me marzipan when I cry has meant the world to me. Professor Tom O’Malley, who I hope has a wonderful retirement, for his encouragement and advice, as well as the great ability to frown at me. I owe a great deal of thanks to people without whom I would not have gotten to my PhD. Michael Bush, who was such an inspiring A-level Media and Film teacher that I chose to study the subjects at university. Dr Kate Egan, without whom I would have neither applied for my MA nor for my PhD. One of the most hardworking and genuine people I have been lucky enough to meet and become friends with. Thank you, both! A great deal of thanks to my friends without whom I would have been helpless and hopeless. Dr Yvonne Rinkart, whose help with editing, coffee and general tolerance of me has been more than appreciated. Dr Sophie van de Goor, whose ability to both listen to me complain and complain back has been a lifeline for my PhD struggles. Daniel Blackburn, whose falling in love with Latvia during my PhD has been a delight to watch. Kaylie MacKenzie, whose willingness to do creative writing with me probably delayed my submission by six months, but also restored my sanity. Dr Wikanda Promkhuntong, who has been an excellent friend in every single way. Dr Lara Kipp, whose ‘are you okay’ texts got me through a lot. Dr Gregor Cameron, whose ability to calmly deal with my angry rants was magnificent. I owe a great deal of thanks to many others and this list is doubtfully representative of them all, nonetheless, thank you to: Aphra Tulip, Sofi Newsham, Rob Callaghan, Ceris Medhurst-Jones, Jamie Terrill, Ineta Jēkabsone-Kempela, Mags Ames. No matter how many ‘thank yous’ I offer, they’ll never be representative of the gratitude I have towards everyone listed here (and quite possibly the people I’ve forgotten). Contents page List of Figures..............................................................................................................................i List of Graphs..............................................................................................................................i List of Images..............................................................................................................................i List of Tables...............................................................................................................................ii List of Appendices......................................................................................................................ii 1. Chapter One: Introduction..............................................................................................1 2. Chapter Two: Literature Review....................................................................................11 2.1. Introduction........................................................................................................11 2.2. Brief overview of Baltic and Latvian history.......................................................12 2.3. Notions of national identity................................................................................16 2.3.1. Baltic national identity............................................................................21 2.3.2. National identity in Latvia.......................................................................24 2.3.2.1. Culture........................................................................................24 2.3.2.2. Language...................................................................................25 2.3.2.3. The Russian-speaking minority..................................................26 2.4. Russian speakers in Latvia: politics and policy.................................................27 2.4.1. Non-citizens...........................................................................................28 2.4.2. Education...............................................................................................29 2.4.3. Politics...................................................................................................30 2.5. Media................................................................................................................31 2.5.1. Stages of media development in Latvia.................................................31 2.5.2. Regulations............................................................................................34 2.5.3. Ownership.............................................................................................36 2.5.4. Latvian- vs Russian-language media in Latvia......................................37 2.6. Media and representation.................................................................................40 2.6.1. Minority representation in Latvian-language media...............................40 2.7. Conclusion........................................................................................................42 3. Chapter Three: Methodology........................................................................................43 3.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................43 3.2. Mixed-methods approach..................................................................................43 3.3. Translation.........................................................................................................46 3.4. Content analysis................................................................................................47 3.5. Text-based pilot study........................................................................................48 3.5.1. Sample selection...................................................................................48 3.5.2. Recording and collecting the news........................................................51 3.5.3. Design of the coding protocol................................................................51 3.5.4. Inter-coder reliability...............................................................................54 3.6. Selection for interviews.....................................................................................59 4. Chapter Four: Representation of Russian speakers in Latvian-language media........61 4.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................61 4.2. The sample period............................................................................................62 4.3. Overview of sources..........................................................................................64