The London School of Economics and Political Science Indian Cotton Textiles and the Senegal River Valley in a Globalising World: Production, Trade and Consumption, 1750- 1850 Kazuo Kobayashi A thesis submitted to the Department of Economic History of the London School of Economics for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, February 2016 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 76,715 words, exclusive of bibliography. Statement of use of third party for editorial help I can confirm that part of my thesis was copy-edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by Dr. Michael Aldous. 2 Abstract This thesis addresses how and why West African consumers, especially those along the Senegal River valley, imported and consumed Indian cotton textiles from the eighteenth to mid-nineteenth century, despite the fact that they produced textiles of various kinds. Using quantitative and qualitative sources collected from France, India, Senegal and the United Kingdom, the thesis fulfils this gap in the existing literature. Throughout this study, it will be shown that local textile production and consumption in West Africa based on factor endowments and natural environment shaped consumer demand and preferences for Indian cotton textiles whose quality was perceived to be more suitable to the life of inhabitants in the region (especially in the savannah and desert areas) than European textiles. In addition, Indian textiles not only suited conspicuous consumption among Africans but also regional economies in which cloth was used as an exchange medium. In the eighteenth century, West African demand for Indian cotton textiles of various types was central to the purchase by European merchants of slaves along coastal areas of West Africa. In the early nineteenth century, which witnessed the transition from the Atlantic slave trade to the trade in commercial agriculture, dark-blue cotton textiles produced in Pondicherry, called ‘guinées’, were of essential importance in the trade in gum Arabic in the lower Senegal River as a currency that replaced a domestically-produced cloth currency. The gum from the region was indispensable in the development of the textile industry in Western Europe at that time. This regional demand influenced the Euro-West African trade and the procurements by Europeans of cotton textiles in India. The thesis argues that historically constructed consumer agency in pre-colonial West Africa had global repercussions from the eighteenth to mid- nineteenth century. 3 Contents Title ...……………………………………………………………………………………1 Declaration ...………………………………………………………………………….2 Abstract ...………………………………………………………………………………..3 Contents ...……………………………………………………………………………..4 List of Maps ...…………………………………………………………………………...5 List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………...6 List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………….7 List of Plates …………………………………………………………………………..8 Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………...9 Maps …………………………………………………………………………………..11 Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………17 Chapter 2: The Rise and Development of ‘Legitimate’ Commerce, 1750–1850 ….44 Chapter 3: Guinées: Trade and Consumption Patterns around the Lower Senegal River Region……………………………………………………………………..95 Chapter 4: Production: Procurement of Cotton Textiles for West Africa in India, c.1750 –c.1850……………………………………………………………………..135 Chapter 5: West European merchants and Indian textiles for West African business, c.1790 – 1850…………………………………………………………….173 Chapter 6: Conclusion…………………….…………………………………………..207 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………221 4 List of Maps Map 1: West Africa ..…………………………………….…………………………….11 Map 2: The Bight of Biafra and hinterland in the nineteenth century …………………12 Map 3: Senegal and southwestern Sahara in the early nineteenth century …………….13 Map 4: Saint Louis …………………………………………………………………….14 Map 5: India (South Asia) ……………………………………………………………..15 Map 6: South India …………………………………………………………………….16 5 List of Figures Figure 1.1: Textiles imported from Britain into West Africa, 1699-1808…….……...25 Figure 2.1: Slave trade by flag, 1751-1850…………………………………………….47 Figure 2.2: Slaves embarked by region, 1751-1850……………………………………47 Figure 2.3: Exports of palm oil from West Africa to Britain, 1801-1850.……………..51 Figure 2.4: Exports of gum Arabic from Senegal to France, 1827-1850 ……………...60 Figure 2.5: Imports of English cotton goods of various kinds from Britain to West Africa, 1827-1849 …………………………………………………………70 Figure 2.6: Regional proportions of calicoes (white and plain) imported from Britain to West Africa, 1827-1849 …………………………………………………..71 Figure 2.7: Regional proportions of calicoes (printed and checked) imported from Britain to West Africa, 1827-1849 ………………………………………..73 Figure 2.8: Imports of Indian cotton textiles from Britain into West Africa, 1827-1849 ……………………………………………………………………………..76 Figure 2.9: Regional proportions of Indian dyed cotton cloths imported from Britain into West Africa, 1827-1849 ……………………………………………...77 Figure 2.10: West African imports of Indian dyed cotton textiles from Britain and France, 1827-1850…………………………………………………………79 Figure 2.11: West African import of cowrie shells from Britain, 1801-1850...………..81 Figure 3.1: Commercial networks around the lower Senegal River region in the early nineteenth century ………………………………………………………104 Figure 5.1: Guinée trades from Pondicherry to France and from France to Senegal, 1827-1850 ………………………………………………………………..192 Figure 5.2: The proportions of Bordeaux and Marseille in the imports of guinées from Pondicherry to France, 1831-1850 ………………………………………194 Figure 5.3: The proportions of Bordeaux and Marseille in the re-exports of guinées from France to Senegal, 1831-1850 …………………………………………..195 6 List of Tables Table 2.1: Types of palm oil, the fermentation process and labour required ………….49 Table 2.2: Exports of gum Arabic from Senegambia to France, 1790s to 1830s ……...56 Table 2.3: Population in Saint Louis.…………………………………………………..63 Table 2.4: Inikori’s estimates on the exports of English and Indian cotton goods, 1827- 1850 …………………………………………………………………………69 Table 2.5: Prices of guinées in France and Senegal in French francs, 1817-1849.….....80 Table 3.1: An assortment of goods (equal to 10 pieces of guinées) ………………….125 Table 3.2: Equivalence of cloth in the Wolof ………………………………………...128 Table 3.3: Recognized exchange rates in the Wolof economic exchanges in the nineteenth century.…………………………………………………………130 Table 5.1: The proportions of Bordeaux, Marseille and Nantes in some African trading areas, in percentage of French trade (tonnage) with those destinations.…...188 Table 5.2: The proportions of guinées in the exportation of cotton textiles from Pondicherry, in the selected years from the 1830s to the 1840s.…………..193 7 List of Plates Plate 1.1: Imitations of Indian cotton textiles for West African trade in 1751 ………..34 Plate 3.1: Samples of guinées ………………………………………………………….97 Plate 3.2: A princess of Trarza who wears guinées ……………………………………99 Plate 3.3: Gum harvesting in Senegal ………………………………………………...102 Plate 4.1: The spinning and weaving mill of cotton of Poulain and Duboy in 1831 …165 Plate 4.2: Cardboards attached to the guinées in Pondicherry ……………………….168 8 Acknowledgements I have been so blessed with many excellent scholars until I am writing this part of my thesis. First and foremost, I would like to express my most heartfelt thanks to Tirthankar Roy and Leigh Gardner. I am really fortunate to have worked under their supervision while undertaking a PhD at LSE. Their helpful guidance and warm encouragement have led me to the proper direction to develop and complete this work. Janet Hunter and Alejandra Irigoin carefully read draft chapters and outlines of this thesis and made constructive comments on them at early stages of the project. The idea of making a connection between Indian cotton textiles and West Africa came to me while I was studying in Japan. For the early development process, I am deeply indebted to Ichiro Maekawa at Soka University, Shigeru Akita, Atsushi Egawa, Takao Fujikawa, Asako Kurihara, Kotaro Nakano and Toru Takenaka at Osaka University. Richard Drayton provided me rich insights into history when I visited at King’s College London in 2010/11. Early versions of this thesis were presented at a variety of seminars, workshops and conferences held in Frankfurt (Oder), Heidelberg, Kyoto, London, Montreal, Nottingham, Osaka, Pittsburgh, Seoul, Tokyo and Warwick. I wish to thank all of the host organisers and participants for providing me with the great opportunities to present papers and to receive valuable comments and inspirational suggestions from wonderful scholars during and after the events. I am also truly grateful for all the people who kindly set up meetings to discuss my research project or responded to my enquiries via emails. These people include Gareth Austin, the late Christopher Bayly, Jody Benjamin, Maxine Berg,