The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society 4: Animals Pacific Linguistics 621 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: I Wayan Arka and Malcolm Ross (Managing Editors), Nicholas Evans, Mark Donohue, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson, and Darrell Tryon EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne Auckland Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African John Lynch, University of the South Pacific Studies Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Studies Universität Mainz William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- David Bradley, La Trobe University Universität zu Kiel Lyle Campbell, University of Hawai‘i Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la James Collins, Northern Illinois University Recherche Scientifique Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- Evolutionary Anthropology Universität Frankfurt am Main Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma at Buffalo Jaya Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas at Ger Reesink, Radboud University Arlington Nijmegen Margaret Florey, Resource Network for Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i Linguistic Diversity Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la William Foley, University of Sydney Recherche Scientifique Karl Franklin, SIL International Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Charles Grimes, SIL International Auckland Nikolaus Himmelmann, Universität zu Köln Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Lillian Huang, Shih-chien University, Taiwan John Wolff, Cornell University Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica, Taipei Harold Koch, The Australian National University The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society 4: Animals edited by Malcolm Rosss, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond Pacific Linguistics School of Culture, History and Language College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics School of Culture, History and Language College of Asia and the Pacific The Australian National University Canberra ACT 2600 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2011 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Title: The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: the culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society Volume 4. Animals / edited by Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond. ISBN: 9780858836266 (pbk.) Notes: Includes bibliographical references and index. Subjects: Proto-Oceanic language. Ethnology--Oceania. Oceania--Social life and customs. Other Authors/ Ross, Malcolm (Malcolm D.) Contributors: Pawley, Andrew Osmond, Meredith. Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. Dewey Number: 499.4 Cover image: Sandie Walters. Fish name: Great Barrier Reef Diagonal Banded Sweet Lip (Plectorhinchus lineatus). Location: Osprey Reef, Coral Sea, Australia Typeset by Malcolm Ross Cover design by Julie Manley/Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd, Fyshwick, Canberra iv vi Contents overview Appendix A Data sources and collation 453 Appendix B Languages 457 References 489 Index of reconstructions by protolanguage 511 Alphabetical index of reconstructions 533 Index of English and biological terms 557 4 Aquatic invertebrates ANDREW PAWLEY 1 Introduction This chapter deals with invertebrates that are aquatic or semi-aquatic, such as crustaceans, molluscs, echinoderms, sea-worms, jellyfish and corals.1 It addresses the following ques- tions: () What terms for aquatic invertebrates can be attributed to Proto Oceanic (POc) and other high-order interstages of Oceanic? () What uses were made of these animals? () How does the number of taxa reconstructable for POc compare with the number attested in well- described contemporary languages? The marine invertebrate fauna of the tropical southwest and central Pacific is fairly uni- form, so that when Oceanic speakers first dispersed across this region some 3000 years ago they generally encountered familiar creatures. It must be added that not every island or is- land group has the full range of habitats: fringing coral reefs, mangrove forests, estuarine mudflats, seagrass flats, etc. Molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms gathered in and around the intertidal zone form one of the most reliable protein food sources of coastal Oceanic communities. The bulk of foraging for invertebrates in this zone is done by women while in most societies diving for lobsters and deep water molluscs is mainly men’s work. Mollusc shells were traditionally made into a variety of tools and ornaments. Archaeological discoveries underline the long- standing importance of water invertebrates to speakers of Oceanic languages. Living sites and middens left by bearers of the Lapita culture contain extensive remains of molluscs and crustaceans and artefacts made from mollusc shells (see §4.1). 1 This is a much revised and expanded version of Pawley (1996). I am grateful to Meredith Osmond for help in compiling and checking the list of cognate sets, and to Ann Chowning, John Lynch and Malcolm Ross for valuable comments on a draft of the paper. I am also indebted to Ann Chowning for data on some New Britain languages, to Paul Geraghty for providing terms from the Viwa dialect of Wayan Fijian and for helpful discussion of the Wayan material and to John Lynch for comparative material on Southern Vanuatu languages. Malcolm Ross, Andrew Pawley and Meredith Osmond, eds The lexicon of Proto Oceanic, vol. 4: Animals, 161–215. Pacific Linguistics, 2011. © This edition vested in Pacific Linguistics. 161 162 Andrew Pawley Linguistic evidence that foraging on the reef for invertebrates was important to Proto Oceanic speakers is found in two widespread cognate sets noted by Clark (1991). Clark’s POc reconstructions are given below, with a few additional cognates.2 The first is a verb. POc *paŋoda ‘gather seafood on the reef’ (Clark 1991) PT: Gapapaiwa vanota ‘net prawns’ PT: Motu haoda ‘to fish’ MM: Teop vagana () ‘gather marine organisms on the reef’, () ‘to fish, go fishing’ SES: Bugotu vaŋoda ‘hunt for shellfish on the reef’3 SES: Gela vaŋoda () ‘collect food on the reef.’ () ‘shellfish, crustaceans and echinoderms) gathered on the reef’ SES: Sa’a haŋoda ‘Haliotis, abalone’ NCV: Mota vaŋona ‘catch fish with a line, get shell-fish, etc. for a relish’ NCV: Nguna (pa)vaŋoda ‘look for shellfish, gather shells, fish for seafish’ NCV: SE Ambrym pæŋor ‘to fish’ NCV: Namakir (ba)vaŋot ‘forage on reef’ NCV: Lonwolwol foŋōr ‘look for fish’ NCV: Uripiv (e)vaŋor ‘forage on the reef’ SV: Anejom̃ (a)haŋec ‘forage on reef’ Mic: Marshallese yaŋweɹ ‘go fishing’ Fij: Rotuman haŋota () ‘to fish.’ () ‘fishing excursion, shoal of fish’ Pn: Tongan fāŋota ‘to fish, or to search for shell-fish or any kind of fiŋota’ Pn: Niuean faŋota ‘gather shellfish on the reef’ Pn: Rennell hāŋota ‘to fish or gather shells, especially by women on the reef’ Pn: Ifira-Mele fāŋota ‘gather shellfish etc. on the reef’ The second reconstruction, *p‹in›aŋoda, is a nominalisation of the verb using the infix *‹in›, which in POc typically derived a noun denoting the thing acted on or produced by the action of the verb. It is likely that *piŋoda was present in POc as a fast speech variant: reflexes of *p‹in›aŋoda show loss of the second syllable in all Polynesian languages and in some North and Central Vanuatu and Papuan Tip languages. POc *p‹in›aŋoda, *piŋoda ‘seafood gathered on the reef, edible sea invertebrates’ (Clark 1991) PT: Molima igoda ‘collect shellfish’ PT: Kilivila vigoda ‘shell (clams, snails)’ 2 In these two reconstructions I have substituted *d for the POc phoneme that Clark writes as *nt. 3 With respect to ‘shellfish’, much used in dictionary and wordlist glosses cited for this and certain other cognate sets, it should be noted that this term means different things to different people. Nearly all New Zealanders and many Australians and English people use ‘shellfish’ to mean ‘(edible) molluscs with external shells’, excluding crustaceans, whereas others, including most people from the USA, use it to mean ‘(edible) crustaceans and molluscs with external shells’. It is apparent that most of our sources for Oceanic languages use this term in the narrower sense. Aquatic invertebrates 163 PT: Dobu igoda () ‘gather shellfish’, () ‘shellfish’ MM: Tolai vinaŋonoi ‘generic name for sea shells’ (final syllable irregular) NCV: Nguna vinaŋoda ‘shell, shellfish’ Pn: Tongan fiŋota ‘sea creature