ilTlifino yasendle, ilTlifino isiZulu The ethnobotany,' historical ecology and nutrition of traditional vegetables in KwaZulu-Natal Town Cape of University Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Master of Arts in Social Anthropology, Department of Social Anthropology, University of Cape Town Landon Myer 21 June 1999 The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University Table of Contents 1.0 Executive summary 1 2.0 Introduction 2 2.1 Aim and research questions 3 2.2 Terminologies 4 2.3 Structure of this work 5 3.0 Literature review 6 3.1 Human-plant interactions 6 3.2 Traditional vegetables in agricultural research 7 3.3 Social differentiation the knowledge and use of traditional vegetables 8 3.4 The values of traditional vegetables 10 3.5 Conclusion 12 4.0 Methods 13 4.1 Rapid assessment techniques 13 4.2 Ecological techniques 14 4.3 Historical techniques 15 4.4 Nutritional assessment techniques 15 4.5 Analysis 16 4.6 Reflections on methodology 16 5.0 Contexts 17 5.1 Forced relocations in KwaZulu and Natal 18 5.1.1 Impacts of the homeland system 19 5.2 Study site 20 5.2.1 Household demographics and origins 21 5.2.2 Local economy Town 22 5.2.3 Local subsistence 23 5.3 Conclusion 24 6.0 Ethnobotanical and social perspectives on imifino 25 6.1 Definitions of imifino 26 6.2 Knowledge of imifino Cape 26 6.3 Classification of species 29 6.4 Collection 30 6.5 Storage of 31 6.6 Marketing 31 6.7 Medicinal values 32 6.8 Communication of imifino knowledge 32 6.9 Social values associated with imifino 33 6.10 Conclusion 34 7.0 Ecology of imifino in the local past 35 7.1 Habitats 36 7.2 Availability 37 7.3 Seasonality 38 7.4 Access University 38 7.5 Changing landscapes 40 7.6 Discussion 42 7.6.1 Resettlement 43 7.6.2 Changing land use 44 7.7 Conclusion 45 B.O Imifino in food and nutrition 46 8.1 Meals 47 8.2 Foods eaten 47 8.3 Imifino consumption 49 8.4 Preparation 50 8.5 Perceptions of nutrition 51 8.6 Preferences in taste 51 8.7 Micronutrient malnutrition in South Africa 53 8.7.1 Factors influencing malnutrition 54 8.8 Imifino and nutrition 55 Table of Contents 1.0 Executive summary 1 2.0 Introduction 2 2.1 Aim and research questions 3 2.2 Terminologies 4 2.3 Structure of this work 5 3.0 Literature review 6 3.1 Human-plant interactions 6 3.2 Traditional vegetables in agricultural research 7 3.3 Social differentiation the knowledge and use of traditional vegetables 8 3.4 The values of traditional vegetables 10 3.5 Conclusion 12 4.0 Methods 13 4.1 Rapid assessment techniques 13 4.2 Ecological techniques 14 4.3 Historical techniques 15 4.4 Nutritional assessment techniques 15 4.5 Analysis 16 4.6 Reflections on methodology 16 5.0 Contexts 17 5.1 Forced relocations in KwaZulu and Natal 18 5.1.1 Impacts of the homeland system 19 5.2 Study site 20 5.2.1 Household demographics and origins 21 5.2.2 Local economy Town 22 5.2.3 Local subsistence 23 5.3 Conclusion 24 6.0 Ethnobotanical and social perspectives on imifino 25 6.1 Definitions of imifino 26 6.2 Knowledge of imifino Cape 26 6.3 Classification of species 29 6.4 Collection 30 6.5 Storage of 31 6.6 Marketing 31 6.7 Medicinal values 32 6.8 Communication of imifino knowledge 32 6.9 Social values associated with imifino 33 6.10 Conclusion 34 7.0 Ecology of imifino in the local past 35 7.1 Habitats 36 7.2 Availability 37 7.3 Seasonality 38 7.4 Access University 38 7.5 Changing landscapes 40 7.6 Discussion 42 7.6.1 Resettlement 43 7.6.2 Changing land use 44 7.7 Conclusion 45 8.0 Imifino in food and nutrition 46 8.1 Meals 47 8.2 Foods eaten 47 8.3 Imifino consumption 49 8.4 Preparation 50 8.5 Perceptions of nutrition 51 8.6 Preferences in taste 51 8.7 Micronutrient malnutrition in South Africa 53 8.7.1 Factors influencing malnutrition 54 8.8 Imifino and nutrition 55 1.0 Executive summary Traditional wild or weedy leafy green vegetables are an important food source in many parts of Africa, and there have been several recent calls across the continent for interventions promoting the use of these resources for their nutritional values. In South Africa relatively little research attention has been paid to traditional vegetables, known in Zulu as imifino. However it is widely thought that these plants are falling into disuse as food preferences change and exotic vegetables such as spinach or cabbage become more commonly available. This report aims to provide basic understandings to inform the promotion of traditional vegetables in South Africa by exploring their ethnobotanical, ecological and nutritional dynamics. Interdisciplinary methods incorporating anthropology, ecology, nutrition and history are required to present holistic insights into the processes of imifino use and disuse. These techniques are focused on the community ofNkonisa, a forced relocation settlement in rural KwaZulu-Natal. A total of 36 imifino species are known across Nkonisa. Most participants know only a core group of 4-6 species which are locally available and are used frequently within the households. When seasonally available, these plants are harvested by women or children and occasionally sold in local markets. There also is a scattered body of knowledge of lesser known species which are rarely used. Many of these can not be recognised in the field by most participants and are generally thought to be locally unavailable. The knowledge and use of imifino are closely correlated. Knowledge of the core body imifino is taught to children at a young age. Only later in life are more obscure species learned about through conversations with individuals particularly knowledgeable in imifino. Increasingly the process of communication from old to young is being interrupted, most notably byTown changing social values which often favour 'modem' foods including cultivated exotic vegetables. These interruptions in the transfer of knowledge between generations is likely to contribute to the increasing disuse of traditional vegetables, as many participants come to view imifino as the foods of poverty. Changing land use patterns over the past 60 years, includingCape commercial plantation agriculture and dense modern settlements, have led to severe disturbances of the local environment. The area of contemporary Nkonisa has changed from a sparsely inhabited and relatively undisturbed landscapes to a densely populated village characterised by heavilyof disturbed ecological conditions. These changes have reduced the 'wild' habitats in which many types of imifino live, and are likely to have contributed to an overall reduction in the availability of species. However certain kinds of imifino thrive in disturbed microenvironments, and these species have benefited from changing ecological conditions. For the most part, these are also the species which comprise the core group of imifino knowledge. Imifino have the potential to make important nutritional contributions to local diets. Most participants reported eating traditional vegetables twice a week during the summer. At other times of the year imifino consumption is greatly reduced as exotic vegetables such as spinach or cabbage playa greater part in household subsistence.University Most types of traditional vegetables contain high levels of micronutrients, including iron and vitamin A. The nutrient levels of many imifino species can make direct contributions to the diets of individuals at risk of micronutrient malnutrition, most notably children and women of childbearing age. Interventions to promote the use of imifino should seek to address the factors which lead to the disuse of traditional vegetables. These factors include the loss of knowledge of traditional vegetables and the ability to recognise species, an increased reliance on exotic vegetables from markets, the disturbed local ecological conditions, and the historical relocations of households between biomes. Market­ based initiatives and educational programmes each present relatively short-term and low-cost interventions which have potential for local application to enhance the use of traditional vegetables. 2.0 Introduction .. .kasi va hi tisela ku ta love ka ndzawu leyi Na xixevo a ha ha toti ka ndzwao leyi Milomo yi herile hi magidipo ya makhavichi Va hi susife kaya ka kahletiko len hi hlopekile Mayana kaya ka Makuleke ahi hlayiseka hi tsakile' . and here they have brought us to perish in this place We get no relish here Our lips are parched from the malnutrition of cabbages They have taken us away from a lovely country In this country we have suffered We wish for our horne at Makuleke where we were safe and happy Across Africa and around the world, wild or weedy plants make important contributions to human subsistence. One particularly important but poorly understood category of wild plant foods are the leaves of herbaceous plants commonly consumed as vegetables. These foods playa variety of roles in human diets as garnishes, relishes, side dishes or staple foods. Over the past decade, researchers and scientists working with rural agrarian communities have begun to recognise the diverse values of leafy green vegetables. These resources often make important contributions to human diets through their high content of certain micronutrients, particularly in areas of poverty and food insecurity.