Mountain Conservation in South Africa M. E. Shroyer P. Blignaut Abstract—South Africa comprises approximately 10 percent moun- mately 10 percent mountainous terrain and isolated moun- tainous terrain and isolated mountains, based on the criterion of tains. Distinctive hilly terrain and distinctive coastal and 450 m (1,476 feet) local relief. Distinctive hilly terrain and distinc- river relief make up approximately 13 percent of the land tive coastal and river relief make up approximately 13 percent of the surface. land surface. The highest mountains are located in the Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa either form part of the Great with peaks reaching 3,400 m (11,155 feet) and local relief up to 2,100 m Escarpment or are free standing. The Great Escarpment (6,890 feet). The extensive Cape Fold Mountain Range (totaling extends from the mountainous regions of the Northern about 21,000 km2, or 8,108 miles2) also have several peaks with local Province, southward to the Drakensberg, past Lesotho and relief close to 2,000 m (6,562 feet). Many other less extensive the Eastern Cape into the Southern Cape. It then continues mountain ranges exist throughout South Africa. north of the Cape Fold Mountains to Sutherland in the Developments and poor management practices in mountain ar- Karoo, before turning northward toward Springbok in the eas are increasing on private and government land, and mountain Northern Cape (DEAT 1997). wilderness is shrinking. The objective of this paper is to: provide an The highest mountains in South Africa are located in the overview of major mountain ranges, their conservation status, and Drakensberg with peaks reaching 3,400 m (11,155 feet) with the type of communities that live in close proximity to these local relief up to 2,100 m. The extensive Cape Fold sandstone 2 mountains; highlight key threats to mountain wilderness; and mountain ranges (totaling about 21,000 km , or 8,108 2 discuss and analyze policies, legislation, and other “social contracts” miles ) also have several peaks with local relief close to that deal with mountain management in South Africa, focusing on 2,000 m (6,562 feet). Many other less extensive mountain how key issues such as overexploitation, overburning, lack of finance, ranges exist throughout South Africa (Blignaut 2000a). law enforcement, lack of knowledge, bad environmental attitudes,water pollution, inappropriate private and infrastructural developments, and poorly planned access routes are being addressed. Mountain Wilderness ____________ A hypothetical case study, where suitable socioecological zoning Some mountainous areas are still wild and unspoiled as a is used in the planning and development of a private mountain result of harsh living conditions for humans, rough topogra- reserve, is discussed. The rationale for using socioecological zoning phy, and remoteness. In these pristine wilderness areas, is to encourage the conservation of mountain wilderness by only there are few signs of human modification. Indigenous fauna developing in areas where potentially negative effects on wilderness and flora are very dominant. These places provide a range of qualities can be minimized, and to restrict nonwilderness-depen- opportunities to visitors for solitude and to interact with dent activities in identified wilderness areas. Socioecological zoning nature on nature’s terms. requires that a predetermined range of social needs and uses, The wilderness qualities in mountains vary depending on applicable to the characteristics of the mountain environment in the geomorphology, climate, surrounding land use, and fauna country, is scientifically matched to the appropriate ecological and and flora, for example: physical characteristics of the mountain area. • The Cape Fold Mountains form part of the extremely biodiverse Cape Floral Kingdom ecosystem and offer many undisturbed mountain peaks and kloofs. Visiting Introduction ____________________ these wilderness areas can be strenuous. Leopard and signs of free-ranging wildlife are present in some areas, Based on the criterion that a mountain constitutes an area but the wilderness character of these mountains is elevated at least 450 m (1,476 feet) from the local relief (the linked to solitude; striking scenic beauty with steep height difference measured from the lowest point within the ascents and rough terrain; sandstone cliffs; pure moun- area being considered), South Africa comprises approxi- tain water; and multicolored, unsurpassed endemism among flora. • The KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg harbors one of the M. E. Shroyer is an Independent Natural Resource Researcher, 2 Chudleigh world’s greatest rock art collections. There are an esti- Court, Carstens Street, Tamboerskloof, Cape Town, 8001, South Africa. Fax: mated 600 sites with more than 35,000 individual rock 27-21 4262746, E-mail: [email protected]. P. Blignaut is a Mountain art images. It contains high-altitude and unique South- Environment Consultant, Coordinator for Africa of IUCN Mountain Pro- tected Areas Network, Southern Africa Mountain Environment Consultancy ern African alpine-tundra vegetation and associated (SAMEC), 14 Kreupelbosch Way, Constantia, 7806, South Africa, Fax 27-21 endemic paleoinvertebrates. It offers outstanding views 7944836, E-mail: [email protected] and a range of peaks to climb. Wildlife can be encoun- In: Watson, Alan; Sproull, Janet, comps. 2003. Science and stewardship to tered at varying altitudes. protect and sustain wilderness values: Seventh World Wilderness Congress symposium; 2001 November 2–8; Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Proc. RMRS- • The Lebombo Mountains are less than 800 m (2,625 P-27. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky feet) high, but are probably the richest wildlife moun- Mountain Research Station. 26 USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003 Shroyer and Blignaut Mountain Conservation in South Africa tain habitat south of the Zambezi Escarpment, mostly Mountain Communities in South by virtue of their length down the Kruger National Park and the wilderness of Mozambique on the eastern side. Africa _________________________ Elephant, lion, leopard, buffalo, rhino, and another 40 True mountain communities, people who have tradition- to 50 large mammals, mainly antelope, as well as enor- ally lived in mountain areas, are a rare phenomenon in mously rich birdlife inhabit parts of it. South Africa. African communities are mostly located in • The Richtersveld is a mountain desert with summer hilly terrain with few communities actually inhabiting the daytime temperatures regularly higher than 40 C ∞ mountains, unlike mountain communities in South America, (104 F), where both plants and animals have adapted ∞ Asia, and Europe. to the harsh desert conditions. Although a mountain zonation policy (fig. 1) has been proposed (Blignaut 1992), there is currently no formal policy Diversity of Mountain Communities specifically aimed at mountain conservation. Many moun- The culture of people living in close proximity to moun- tainous areas are not zoned, and there are no specific tains varies from mountain to mountain, depending on management objectives or indicators to monitor compliance agricultural potential, proximity to markets, climate, scenic to set targets on State or private land. In many cases the value, rock formation, biodiversity, presence of wildlife, diverse mountain wilderness landscapes are not managed. conservation status, recreational opportunities offered, so- There is currently no attempt to protect the remaining cioeconomic factors, and so forth. The following loose catego- mountain wilderness by restricting access and making in- ries attempt to describe different communities who live close ducements to go elsewhere through the provision of recre- to mountains or who enjoy benefits provided by mountains: ational facilities in more appropriate areas. As a result, many of these wilderness areas are being targeted for • Traditional mountain communities, which are people ecotourism. Even with a moderate increase in the use of who live in the foothills or who live in the mountains on wilderness areas, their nature conservation status may be a permanent basis, whose ancestors also lived in moun- totally unimpaired, while the wilderness experience may be tainous terrain, and who utilize resources provided by ruined. mountains, mountain slopes, or mountain streams as ECOCENTRIC CONTINUUM ANTHROPOCENTRIC Minimal development more intense development and human use and human use Tourism opportunities WISE USE OPTIMUM USE ECOLOGICAL WILDERNESS WORLD NATIONAL MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN MOUNTAIN ZONE ZONE HERITAGE PARK FEATURE / RECREATION SPORT O (Research) SITE NATURE MONUMENT ZONE ZONE SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN VER EXPLOITATION (Global Status) RESERVE (Spot Zone) (Developed site) (Sport climbing, DEVELOPMENT, BUT START HERITAGE skiing, OF DEGRADATION OF SITE equipment used) NATURAL SYSTEMS ANTHROPOLOGICAL MULTIPLE ZONE USE (Mountain ZONE peoples) EQUIVALENT IUCN ZONING CATEGORIES (II) (I) (I) (X) (III) NEW NEW (VII) (VIII) (IV) BIOSPHERE RESERVE (IX) Is a combination of a spectrum of the above zones By catering for a continuum conflicts can be avoided and needs satisfied Figure 1—Socioecological zoning. USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-27. 2003 27 Shroyer and Blignaut Mountain Conservation in South Africa their primary livelihood. This includes livestock farm- partnership to combat environmental degradation on ing (cattle, goat, and sheep), crop farming, and dagga mountain slopes in their area. growing.