CHRONOLOGY Early History origins No historical evidence exists regarding the origins of Muscat, although it seems likely that it may be several millennia old or more. Prehistoric set- tlements and burial grounds dating from the 4th millennium B.C. exist at Bandar Jissah, al- Wutayyah, Ra"s al-Hamra", Bawshar, al-Saruj, al-Khuwayr, and elsewhere in the capital area. Prehistoric rock art also exists in Wadi 'Adayy. 696 A fleet sent by al-Hajjaj b. Yusuf, the Umayyad governor of Iraq, is said to anchor at Bandar Jissah and land troops at Yiti, who march to Wadi Hatat where they are defeated by the Omanis. 865 Fortress town of Dama, location of an important pre-Islamic fair and site of present-day al-Sib, is destroyed by floods. 9th through Muscat is mentioned by Arab sources as a fishing 13th centuries village and as a source of water for ships setting off across the Indian Ocean. 11th century Muscat becomes a prominent port under the Kings of Hormuz, based at Qalhat in Oman. late 15th century Muscat eclipses Qalhat as Oman’s main coastal entrepôt. The Portuguese and al-Ya'aribah Period 1507 Portuguese fleet under Afonso d’Albuquerque reaches Omani coast near Masirah, passes Sur, takes Qalhat without resistance, and captures Quriyat after a severe battle. The Portuguese find Muscat defended by seafront ramparts and, after the failure of negotiations, bombard the town 118 chronology and mount a twin-pronged assault. Muscat is captured after a fierce struggle and most of its inhabitants are put to death. The town is then pillaged and burned to the ground, including the mosque, after the inhabitants fail to provide a ransom, as the Portuguese set sail for Suhar. The Portuguese return shortly afterwards and take permanent possession of the town. 1546 Four Ottoman ships anchor at Muscat and bombard the town, but sail away without landing. 1552 Ottoman fleet under command of Piri Reis attacks Muscat and captures the town and the forts before departing. 1553 Portuguese defeat Ottomans in a sea battle near al- Fahl Island. 1580 An Ottoman fleet under Piri Reis attacks Muscat by sea and land, landing at Sidab and infiltrating Muscat; defenders barricade themselves in the gharayzah and the two forts and Ottomans pillage the town before withdrawing. 1581 Three Ottoman galleys attack Muscat by landing men near the town and then bombarding the town from the harbor. Muscat is successfully invaded and the entire population flees before Ottomans leave. 1586–1588 Construction of al-Jalali and al-Mirani forts is completed. 1622–1625 Muscat becomes the regional center of the Portuguese after the fall of Hormuz. Their improvements include the rebuilding of the town wall, a new customs house and landing place, and various watchtowers, as well as two watchtowers in Matrah that are subsequently strength- ened into Matrah fort. 1624 Election of Nasir b. Murshid al-Ya'rubi as imam prompts the Portuguese to build an earthen land wall around Muscat, which is strengthened in subsequent years; the fortification system is extended as far as al-Sib. 1626 Fortifications of Muscat are strengthened under order of Ruy Freyre de Andrada to defend against attacks by the Persians, allied at this time with the English and Dutch. c. 1627 The fortifications at the entrance to Muscat harbor, al-Sirah al-Gharbiyah and al-Sirah al-Sharqiyah are completed..