Sociological Practice Volume 8 Issue 1 Community Development and Other Article 4 Community Applications January 1990 Community Development in America: A Brief History Bryan M. Phifer Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/socprac Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Phifer, Bryan M. (1990) "Community Development in America: A Brief History," Sociological Practice: Vol. 8: Iss. 1, Article 4. Available at: http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/socprac/vol8/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Open Access Journals at DigitalCommons@WayneState. It has been accepted for inclusion in Sociological Practice by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@WayneState. Community Development in America: A Brief History Bryan M. Phifer ABSTRACT This article traces community development from early self-help efforts through com- munity organization, university, social work and government thrusts to the field as we know it today. It describes the roles of key individuals, organizations, and literature in the growth of the field. The author looks ahead to crucial issues facing community development in the future. The references cited in the article are a rich source of information for anyone interested in the history and current status of community devel- opment. Community development in America as an organized, purposeful, self-help activity has its roots in late nineteenth century rural life. Some may argue that its roots go back to Jamestown since its very survival depended upon self-help and almost total reliance on local resources. However, Jamestown, like many early American communities, was directed in a very authoritarian manner with survival as the main objective. There was little democratic participation until the coming of the New England town meeting. During his tour of America in the 1830s, Alexis de Tocqueville observed both democracy and a desire for self-improvement in action. In one of the most quoted passages from his book Democracy in America, he observed: This article is based on the chapter "History of Community Development in America," in Community Development in Perspective (1989). 18 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICA 19 Americans of all ages, all stations in life, and all types of dispositions are forever forming associations. There are not only commercial and industrial associations in which all take part, but others of a thousand different types—religious, moral, serious, futile, very general and very limited, immensely large and very minute. Americans combine to give fetes, found seminaries, build churches, distribute books, and send missionaries to the antipodes. Hospitals, prisons, and schools take shape in that way... In every case, at the head of any new undertaking, where in France you would find the govern- ment or in England some territorial magnate, in the United States you are sure to find an association. (Tocqueville, 1966:485) Undoubtedly, self-help and self-reliance were mainstays of early American history. However, community development as we know it today—a purposeful attempt to improve communities through democratic participation as well as self-help—did not begin to appear until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. A number of influences formed the roots of this emerging field. Early Roots of Community Development Numerous organizations and movements devoted to improving rural life emerged in the post-Civil War era. Summers (1986:348) points out that the radical agrarian mood and proposals of the Populist party "had grown increas- ingly ugly in response to the farm crisis that had escalated during the last quarter of the 19th century. The Country Life Movement emerged as an urban-sponsored alternative to the radical economic proposals of the Populists." The movement, along with Pres. Theodore Roosevelt's Country Life Commis- sion, were major forces in urging the U.S. Department of Agriculture and land- grant colleges to play a more active role in the improvement of rural life. "The report of the Commission covered thoroughly the most prominent features of rural life in America and the nature of remedies available" (Bailey, 1945:246). Its most urgent recommendation was the "establishment of a nation- wide extension workforce . without which no college of agriculture can ade- quately serve its state" (Senate Document 705, 1909:56). Of equal importance to these growing demands for extension was the pioneering farm demonstration work of Dr. Seaman A. Knapp who Bailey (1945) called the "Schoolmaster of American Agriculture" in his book about his work. Knapp successfully demonstrated the control of the cotton boll weevil which was devastating the South's most important cash crop. His work received national acclaim and greatly influenced the Congress. 20 SOCIOLOGICAL PRACTICE/1990 The fruition of effort by these many forces was the passage of the Smith- Lever Act of 1914. It established the Cooperative Extension Service as a joint endeavor of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and state land-grant colleges with matching federal and state funding. In submitting its bill authorizing ex- tension work, the House Committee on Agriculture stated: The theory of the bill is to extend this system to the entire country by providing for at least one trained demonstrator or itinerant teacher for each agricultural county, who in the very nature of things must give leadership and direction along all lines of rural activity—social, economic, and financial ... He is to assume leadership in every movement, whatever it may be, the aim of which is better farming, better living, more happiness, more education, and better citizenship. (U.S.Congress, 1915:5) Rural Community Organization In its 1909 report, the Country Life Commission found that a major prob- lem of rural people was lack of organization. Consequently, following passage of the Smith-Lever Act, several states, including Georgia, Kentucky, Mississip- pi, Missouri, New York, North Carolina, West Virginia and Virginia began com- munity organization work under the direction of their Extension Services. Extension agents in the South began organizing community clubs in the early 1920s. By 1923 C.B. Smith, Director of the USDA's States Relation Service, could state in his annual report of extension work: The maxim that all programs of extension work should be based on an analysis of local or community needs has been given increasing sup- port, as shown by the greater number of community programs developed throughout the United States. More than 21,000 com- munities ... have local committees or clubs which join with Extension agents in developing and working out local plans of work. (True, 1928:175) It didn't take long for pioneering extension agents to learn that their most successful efforts were those involving local people in identifying needs and developing appropriate educational programs. True (1928:175) states: Extension forces were also realizing that they could not reach large numbers of people effectively without the active cooperation of many local leaders. They, therefore, increased their efforts to get beyond the county organization supporting their work and to build their programs on a community basis. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN AMERICA 21 Frank Farrington was one of the first writers about community development. His book Making the Small Town a Better Place to Live and A Better Place in Which to Do Business, published in 1915, is a handbook and guide to community organization. It emphasizes the economic aspects of community improvement, business and commercial organization, and the function and importance of service clubs. Although intended primarily for small towns, his book found a wide audience among residents of large towns, Educational Associations Educational associations have long supported community development and, in fact, were a major force in developing it into a field of study and practice. At the first conference of the National University Education Association (NUEA) in 1915, President Charles Van Hise emphasized the importance of "informal com- munity service." The term "community development" appeared in the association's 1924 proceedings and in 1935 the association called for university- sponsored community development workers. During the 1940s the community development movement within universities was spearheaded by NUEA leaders Howard McClusky at the University of Michigan, Jess Ogden at the University of Virginia, and Baker Brownell at the University of Montana. The NUEA established a community organization committee in 1948 and a division of community development in 1955. Katharine Lackey of Southern Il- linois University prepared an extensive report in 1960 about community develop- ment work through member institutions of the NUEA. Her report highlighted work in thirteen universities. The Adult Education Association has long been a strong supporter and advocate of community development. Among its various sections is one on community development. The classic 1960 Handbook of Adult Education, edited by Malcolm Knowles, includes a chapter on community development by pioneer practitioner and scholar Howard McClusky. University Efforts In addition to the early work through extension services of the land-grant universities, several universities have a distinguished history of community development education and service. One of the early pioneers is St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish, Nova Scotia, whose program started in the 1920s. Known as