Investigating Ancient Human Occupation at Zoboku: A Koma Site in Northern Ghana Joyce Ampofoa Dartey Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Sainsbury Research Unit for the Arts of Africa, Oceania and the Americas University of East Anglia March 2018 This copy of the thesis has been supplied on condition that anyone who consults it is understood to recognise that its copyright rests with the author and that use of any information derived therefrom must be in accordance with current UK Copyright Law. In addition, any quotation or extract must include full attribution. i Dedication I dedicate this thesis to Nana Akwasi, Papa Kwabena, Maame Yaa Affoah and Adom Ofori, for the many challenges and rewards. ii Abstract It was the highly elaborate terracotta figurines that drew research attention to the Koma archaeological sites in northern Ghana in the mid-1980s. Since then, several mounds in the area have suffered the ravages of illicit looting and sale of the figurines, resulting in a loss of essential contextual and archaeological information. Nevertheless, scientific research has also made considerable advances in examining and revealing some aspects of the social, ritual and technological organisation of the past Koma societies. For example, research has revealed that the Koma sites were probably inhabited as early as the sixth century AD. It has also been revealed that some of the mounds are the remains of ritual actions possibly focused on healing and ancestor veneration practices, in which figurines and other objects were specially curated, used and ultimately deposited in special spatial arrangements. So far there has been considerable attention on the Koma terracotta figurines and how they were appropriated in such symbolic and ritual processes and how they embody the aesthetic constructions of the past Koma people. This primary research focus on terracotta figurines has however, resulted in a marginalization of the importance of other associated artefact categories such as pottery. This thesis attempts to address this imbalance by focusing on the pottery artefacts from Zoboku, near Tantala in northeast Ghana. Based on the premise that the materialities of pottery and terracotta figurines were entangled in several ways, the thesis explores ways in which the social contexts of pottery can be elucidated in the Koma archaeological record. The thesis focuses on the technology of the pottery and examines how the techniques of potmaking were situated in social contexts of interaction and transmission of knowledge. Surveys and excavations have been used to examine how these evidences are structured in the archaeological record of the site. iii List of Contents Dedication ii Abstract iii List of Contents iv List of Tables x List of Maps and Figures xi Acknowledgements xv Chapter 1: Background to the Study 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Structure of the Thesis 7 1.2 Previous Surveys and Delineation of Sites 8 1.3 The Koma Area in the Historical Context of 14 Northern Ghana 1.4 The Initial Research Period-1895 36 1.5 The Later Research Period-2006 to Date 43 1.6 Student-Led Research Activities 49 1.7 The Research Problem 54 1.8 Theoretical Framework 63 1.9 The Study Area-Zoboku near Tantala 75 1.10 Concluding Remarks 79 Chapter 2: Geographical Context 2.0 Introduction 81 2.1 The Guinea-Savanna Zone: Climate 84 2.2 Geology and Soils 87 2.3 Vegetation 89 2.4 Economic Geography 91 2.5 Concluding Remarks 94 iv Chapter 3: Surveys and Excavations 3.0 Introduction 95 3.1 Justification of the Field Methods 95 3.2 Reconnaissance Survey 99 3.3 The Geomagnetic Survey 103 3.4 Results of the Geomagnetic Survey 104 3.5 Global Positioning System (GPS) and Total Station 109 Surveys 3.6 Results of the Surface Surveys 114 3.6.1 Site Type 1 115 3.6.2 Site Type 2 115 3.6.3 Site Type 3 116 3.6.4 Site Type 4 116 3.7 Methodological Overview of the Excavations 116 3.7.1 Test Unit 1: Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 119 Level 1 (0-20cm) 121 Level 2 (20-40cm) 121 Level 3 (40-60cm) 121 Level 4 (60-80cm) 122 3.7.2 Interpretations of Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 123 3.7.3 Test Unit 2: Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 125 Level 1(0-20cm) 128 Level 2 (20-40cm) 129 Level 3 (40-60cm) 129 3.7.4 Interpretations of Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 130 3.7.5 Test Unit 3: Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 130 Level 1 (0-20cm) 131 Level 2 (20-40cm) 132 Level 3 (40-60cm) 137 Level 4 (60-80cm) 137 Level 5 (80-100cm) 137 Level 6 (l00-120cm) 138 Level 7 (120-140cm) 138 Level 8 (140-160cm) 139 3.7.6 Interpretations of Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 141 3.7.7 Test Unit 4: Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 144 Level 1 (0-20cm) 144 Level 2 (20-40cm) 144 Level 3 (40-60cm 144 Level 4 (60-80cm) 145 Level 5 (80-100cm) 146 Level 6 (100-120cm) 146 Level 7 (120-140cm) 147 v Level 8 (140-160cm) 147 3.7.8 Interpretations of Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 149 3.7.9 Concluding Remarks 150 Chapter 4: Ceramic Data 4.0 Introduction 151 4.1 Pottery Analysis: Methodology 152 4.2 Bodysherd Analyses 156 4.2.1 Colour 159 4.2.2 Sherd Sizes 160 4.2.2a Sherd Sizes – ZBK13-M1 160 4.2.2b Sherd Sizes – ZBK13-M2 161 4.2.2c Sherd Sizes – ZBK13-M3 162 4.2.2d Sherd Sizes – ZBK13-M4 163 4.2.3 Thickness 163 4.2.3a Sherd Thickness – ZBK13 – M1 164 4.2.3b Sherd Thickness – ZBK13 – M2 165 4.2.3c Sherd Thickness – ZBK13 – M3 166 4.2.3d Sherd Thickness – ZBK13 – M4 166 4.2.4 Clay Paste Texture 167 4.2.4a Clay Paste Constitution – ZBK13-M1 169 4.2.4b Clay Paste Constitution – ZBK13-M2 169 4.2.4c Clay Paste Constitution – ZBK13-M3 170 4.2.4d Clay Paste Constitution – ZBK13- M4 171 4.2.5 Surface Treatments of Bodysherds –Slipping 171 4.2.5a Slipping – ZBK13-M1 174 4.2.5b Slipping – ZBK13-M2 175 4.2.5c Slipping – ZBK13-M3 176 4.2.5d Slipping – ZBK13-M4 176 4.2.6 Bodysherd Decorations 177 4.2.6a Incisions/Grooves 178 4.2.6b Stabs/Punctates 180 4.2.6c Roulettes 181 4.2.6c.1 Folded Strip Roulette (FSR) 183 4.2.6c.2 Braided Strip Roulette (BSR) 184 4.2.6c.3 Twisted Cord Roulette (TCR) 185 4.2.6c.4 Cord Wrapped Roulette (CWR) 187 4.2.6c.5 Carved Roulette (CR) 188 4.2.7 Distribution of Decorative Patterns in the Units 190 4.2.7a Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 190 4.2.7b Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 191 vi 4.2.7c Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 192 4.2.7d Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 193 4.3 Rim Sherd Analyses 194 4.3.1 Rim Diameter 195 4.3.1a Rim Diameter Values-ZBK13-M1 196 4.3.1b Rim Diameter Values-ZBK13-M2 196 4.3.1c Rim Diameter Values –ZBK13-M3 197 4.3.1d Rim Diameter Values –ZBK13-M4 198 4.3.2 Rim Angles 199 4.3.2a Rim Angle Values –ZBK13-M1 200 4.3.2b Rim Angle Values- ZBK13-M2 201 4.3.2c Rim Angle Values-ZBK13-M3 202 4.3.2d Rim Angle Values –ZBK13-M4 202 4.3.3 Rim Types 203 4.3.3a Zoboku Simple Rim 1 204 4.3.3b Zoboku Everted Rim 1 205 4.3.3c Zoboku Everted Rim 2 206 4.3.3d Zoboku Everted Rim 3 207 4.3.3e Zoboku Everted Rim 4 207 4.3.3f Zoboku Everted Rim 5 208 4.3.3g Zoboku Thickened Rim 1 209 4.3.3h Zoboku Thickened Rim 2 209 4.3.3i Zoboku Thickened Rim 3 210 4.3.3j Zoboku Thickened Rim 4 210 4.3.3k Zoboku Thickened Rim 5 211 4.3.4 Rim Types by Excavated Units 212 4.3.4a Rim Types –Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 212 4.3.4b Rim Types – Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 212 4.3.4c Rim Types – Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 213 4.3.4d Rim Types – Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 214 4.3.5 Surface Treatments of Rim Sherds –Slipping 216 4.3.5a Slipping – Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 216 4.3.5b Slipping – Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 217 4.3.5c Slipping – Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 218 4.3.5d Slipping – Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 218 4.3.6 Rim Sherd Clay Paste Characteristics 220 4.3.6a Rim Sherd Paste Texture – Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 220 4.3.6b Rim Sherd Paste texture – Mound 2 (ZBK13-M2) 221 4.3.6c Rim Sherd Paste Texture – Mound 3 (ZBK13-M3) 222 4.3.6d Rim Sherd Paste Texture – Mound 4 (ZBK13-M4) 222 4.3.7 Rim Sherd Decorative Patterns 223 4.3.7a Rim Sherd M4-5-R13 223 4.3.7b Rim Sherd M4-6-R8 224 vii 4.3.7c Rim Sherd M4 -4-R44 224 4.3.7d Rim Sherd M4-6-R2 224 4.4 Other Ceramic Artefacts 226 4.4.1 Intact Pottery Vessels 226 4.4.1a Intact Pot 1- ZBK13-M3 P1 226 4.4.1b Intact Pot 2 –ZBK13-M3 P2 228 4.4.1c Intact Pot 3- ZBK13-M3 P3 229 4.4.1d Intact Pot 4 – ZBK13-M3 P4 231 4.4.1e Intact Pot 5 – ZBK13-M3 P5 232 4.4.1f Intact Pot 6 – ZBK13-M3 P6 233 4.4.2 Perforated Sherds 234 4.4.3 Pottery Disc-ZBK13-M3-1-15 236 4.4.4 Bases 237 4.4.5 Surface Finds- Figurine Fragments 239 4.4.5a Figurine Fragment 1 – ZBK13- F1 239 4.4.5b Figurine Fragment 2 – ZBK13- F2 240 4.4.5c Figurine Fragment 3 – ZBK13 –F3 241 4.4.5d Figurine Fragment 4 – ZBK13-F4 241 4.4.5e Figurine Fragment 5 – ZBK13- F5 242 4.4.5f Figurine Fragment 6 – ZBK13-F6 243 4.4.6 Surface Find – Small Pedestaled Pot 244 Chapter Five: Other Artefacts 5.0 Introduction 245 5.1 Daub Pieces 245 5.2 Enigmatic Fired Clay Objects 248 5.3 Glass Bead- ZBK13-M1-GB1 251 5.4 Stone Rubbers 254 5.5 Metal Artefacts 257 5.6 Computer Tomography Analysis 263 5.7 Concluding Remarks 268 Chapter Six: Interpretation of Research Data 6.0 Introduction 270 6.1 Technological Characteristics of Zoboku Pottery 270 6.1.1 Colour and Surface Treatment Methods 272 6.1.2 Sherd Thickness 275 6.1.3 Sherd Sizes 275 6.1.4 Fabric Constitution 277 6.1.5 Clay Constituent Analyses 278 6.1.6 Rim Diameter 279 viii 6.1.7 Rim Types 280 6.1.7a Simple Rims 280 6.1.7b Everted Rims 281 6.1.7c Thickened Rims 281 6.2 Interpretation of Site Structure 282 6.2.1 Chronology – Radiocarbon Dating 282 6.2.2 Mound Deposition Context 283 6.2.3 Chronology of the Site 285 6.3 Zoboku in the Context of the Koma Area 287 Chapter Seven Summaries and Conclusions 289 Bibliography 294 ix List of Tables Table 1 Contemporary settlements in the Koma area 13 Table 2 Summary of finds from Mound 1 (ZBK13-M1) 125 Table 3 Summary of