The ‘Deepest Piece of Cunning’ Conspiracy Theory and the Society of the Cincinnati, 1783-1790 Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades der Philosophie an der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München vorgelegt von Markus Hünemörder aus München München, 2003 ii Erstgutachter: Prof. Dr. Berndt Ostendorf Zweitgutachter: Prof. Dr. Michael Wala Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 21.7.2003 iii What is to be done with the Cincinnati: is that order of Chivalry, that In- road upon our first Principle, Equality, to be connived at? It is the deep- est Piece of Cunning yet attempted. John Adams1 1 John Adams to Elbridge Gerry, 25 April 1785, Elbridge Gerry Papers, DLC. iv Contents Preface and Acknowledgements .......................................................................................vii Abbreviations........................................................................................................................ x Abstract................................................................................................................................ xi Introduction: Conspiracy Theory and America ................................................................. 1 The Conspiracy Theory about the Society of the Cincinnati................................. 4 Historiography.......................................................................................................... 8 An American Conspiracy Theory.......................................................................... 16 1. The Theory of Conspiracy ............................................................................................. 24 Considering Conspiracy Theory ............................................................................ 24 The Conspiracy Theories of Ignorance and Society ............................................. 25 Themes of Counter-Subversion ............................................................................. 27 The Paranoid Style.................................................................................................. 30 The Ideological School ........................................................................................... 33 The Paranoid Style Revisited ................................................................................. 37 German Insights...................................................................................................... 41 Rejecting the Paranoid Style.................................................................................. 44 Controversies and Definition................................................................................. 49 Levels of Analysis ................................................................................................... 51 2. The Price of Peace: The End of the Continental Army and the Creation of the Society of the Cincinnati.................................................................................................... 57 Problems of Supply and Pay .................................................................................. 58 Pensions, Commutation, and Congressional Finances ......................................... 61 The Newburgh Crisis.............................................................................................. 64 Founding the Society of the Cincinnati ................................................................ 69 The Philadelphia Mutiny ....................................................................................... 76 v 3. A Political Wolf in Sheep’s Clothing: The Conspiracy Theory against the Society of the Cincinnati..................................................................................................................... 86 A Chronology of Fear............................................................................................. 86 A French Blessing ................................................................................................... 94 Patricians of America ............................................................................................. 98 King George IV ..................................................................................................... 106 The Shadow Government .................................................................................... 109 Thieves of Memory............................................................................................... 114 Was it a Conspiracy Theory? ............................................................................... 118 4. The Wicked and Traitorous Fabrication: The Society of the Cincinnati Controversy and the Constitution ........................................................................................................ 127 Commutation: Obstacle to Constitutional Reform............................................. 127 Fears of Cincinnati Influence over Constitutional Reform................................ 132 Convention and Ratification................................................................................ 138 The New Republic ................................................................................................ 147 5. One Society of Friends: Cincinnati Reactions to Conspiracy Theory....................... 157 The Cincinnati on the Defensive......................................................................... 157 A Society Reformed.............................................................................................. 167 A Reform Rejected................................................................................................ 174 The Impact of a Failed Reform ............................................................................ 181 6. Was it all true? The Politics of the Society of the Cincinnati ................................... 189 Monarchy and Nobility........................................................................................ 189 Rebellion and Constitutional Reform.................................................................. 194 Cincinnati Politics under a Federalist Government ........................................... 203 7. Guardians of the Republic: The Critics of the Society of the Cincinnati.................. 217 Profiles in Suspicion ............................................................................................. 217 The Man from Marblehead: Elbridge Gerry ....................................................... 222 The Spear of Ithuriel: Aedanus Burke ................................................................. 227 vi The Good Doctor: Benjamin Gale........................................................................ 232 Fighting the Good Fight: Political Actions and Strategies against the Cincinnati...................................... 238 8. Between two Revolutions: The “Order of the Cincinnati” in France ....................... 248 A French Connection ........................................................................................... 248 A Threat to Republicanism or to Monarchy? ..................................................... 252 Jacobins and Cincinnati........................................................................................ 257 9. Republican Fears and Confusions: The Context of Conspiracy Theory in the Critical Period ................................................................................................................................ 266 The Fear of a Standing Army............................................................................... 267 The Jealousy of Power.......................................................................................... 278 The Problem of Equality ...................................................................................... 285 Economic Depression and Political Crisis........................................................... 295 Conclusion: Causes and Effects........................................................................................ 307 Appendix: Aedanus Burke’s Considerations ................................................................... 316 Selected Bibliography....................................................................................................... 340 Manuscript Collections......................................................................................... 340 Newspapers ........................................................................................................... 341 Contemporary Pamphlets and Books .................................................................. 342 Documentary Editions.......................................................................................... 344 Secondary Sources ................................................................................................ 348 vii Preface and Acknowledgements This study is the result of my dual fascination with American politics, especially the Constitution, and American popular culture. Ever since my early studies in US his- tory, I was struck with the power and flexibility of the Constitution and I became an admirer of the men and women who had drafted and debated that most persistent of democratic political systems. I quickly realized that the Antifederalists contributed as much as the Framers to the political culture of the United States. The critics of the Constitution focused on the preservation of individual rights and local autonomy, and through the Bill of Rights they left a legacy that modern Americans cherish even more than