ccVoodoo" Death WALTER B. CANNON IN RECORDS of anthropologists and others cause he believed himself to be bewitched; no who have lived with primitive people in nourishment or medicines that were given to him widely scattered parts of the world is the had the slightest effect either to check the mis- testimony that when subjected to spells or chief or to improve his condition in any way, sorcery or the use of "black magic" men may and nothing was able to divert him from a fate which he considered inevitable. In the same way, be brought to death. Among the natives of and under very similar conditions, I have seen South America and Africa, Australia, New Kru-men and others die in spite of every effort Zealand, and the islands of the Pacific, as well that was made to save them, simply because they as among the negroes of nearby Haiti, "voo- had made up their minds, not (as we thought at doo" death has been reported by apparently the time) to die, but that being in the clutch of competent observers. The phenomenon is so malignant demons they were bound to die. extraordinary and so foreign to the experience of civilized people that it seems incredible; Another instance of death wrought by certainly if it is authentic it deserves careful superstitious fear in an African tribe is re- consideration. I propose to recite instances of ported by Merolla in his voyage to the Congo this mode of death, to inquire whether reports in 1682 (cited by Pinkerton, 1814). A young of the phenomenon are trustworthy, and to negro on a journey lodged in a friend's house examine a possible explanation of it if it for the night. The friend had prepared for should prove to be real. their breakfast a wild hen, a food strictly First, with regard to South America. Ap- banned by a rule which must be inviolably parently Soares de Souza (1587) was first to observed by the immature. The young fellow observe instances of death among the Tupi- demanded whether it was indeed a wild hen, nambas Indians, death induced by fright and when the host answered "No," he ate of when men were condemned and sentenced it heartily and proceeded on his way. A few by a so-called "medicine man." Likewise Varn- years later, when the two met again, the old hagen (1875) remarks that generally among friend asked the younger man if he would eat Brazilian Indian tribes, the members, lacking a wild hen. He answered that he had been knowledge, accept without question whatever solemnly charged by a wizard not to eat that is told them. Thus the chief or medicine man food. Thereupon the host began to laugh and gains the reputation of exercising supernatural asked him why he refused it now after having power. And by intimidation or by terrifying eaten it at his table before. On hearing this augury or prediction he may cause death from news the negro immediately began to tremble, fear. so greatly was he possessed by fear, and in less than twenty-four hours was dead. There is like testimony from Africa. Leon- ard (1906) has written an account of the Also in New Zealand there are tales of Lower Niger and its' tribes in which he de- death induced by ghostly power. In Brown's clares: New Zealand and Its Aborigines (1845) there is an account of a Maori woman who, having I have seen more than one hardened old eaten some fruit, was told that it had been Haussa soldier dying steadily and by inches be- taken from a tabooed place; she exclaimed Reprinted from American Anthropologist, 44: that the sanctity of the chief had been pro- Number 2, 1942. faned and that his spirit would kill her. This PSYCHOSOMATIC MEDICINE CANNON 183 incident occurred in the afternoon; the next A question which naturally arises is day about 12 o'clock she was dead. According whether those who have testified to the reality to Tregear (1890) the tayu (taboo) among of "voodoo" death have exercised good critical the Maoris of New Zealand is an awful judgment. Although the sorcerer or medicine- weapon. "I have seen a strong young man man or chief may tacitly possess or may as- die," he declares, "the same day he was sume the ability to kill by bone-pointing or tapued; the victims die under it as though by another form of black magic, may he not their strength ran out as water." It appears preserve his reputation for supernatural power that among these aborigines superstitions asso- by the use of poison? Especially when death ciated with their sacred chiefs are a true has been reported to have occurred after the though purely imaginery barrier; trangression taking of food may not the fatal result be due of that barrier entails the death of the trans- to action of poisonous substances not com- gressor whenever he becomes aware of what monly known except to priests and wizards? he has done. It is a fatal power of the imagina- Obviously, the possible use of poisons must be tion working through unmitigated terror. excluded before "voodoo" death can be ac- Dr. S. M. Lambert of the Western Pacific cepted as an actual consequence of sorcery or Health Service of the Rockefeller Foundation witchcraft. Also it is essential to rule out in- wrote to me that on several occasions he had stances of bold claims of supernatural power seen evidence of death from fear. In one case when in fact death resulted from natural there was a startling recovery. At a Mission causes; this precaution is particularly impor- at Mona Mona in North Queensland were tant because of the common belief among many native converts, but on the outskirts of aborigines that illness is due to malevolence. the Mission •was a group of non-converts in- I have endeavored to leam definitely whether cluding one Nebo, a famous witch doctor. poisoning and spurious claims can quite cer- The chief helper of the missionary was Rob, tainly be excluded from instances of death, a native who had been converted. When Dr. Lambert arrived at the Mission he learned attributed to magic power, by addressing en- that Rob was in distress and that the mission- quiries to medically trained observers. ary wanted him examined. Dr. Lambert made Dr. Lambert, already mentioned as a rep- the examination, and found no fever, no com- resentative of the Rockefeller Foundation, plaint of pain, no symptoms or signs of dis- wrote to me concerning the experience of Dr. ease. He was impressed, however, by the P. S. Clarke with Kanakas working on the obvious indications that Rob was seriously ill sugar plantations of North Queensland. One and extremely weak. From the missionary he day a Kanaka came to his hospital and told learned that Rob had had a bone pointed at him he would die in a few days because a him by Nebo and was convinced that in con- spell had been put upon him and nothing sequence he must die. Thereupon Dr. Lam- could be done to counteract it. The man had bert and the missionary went for Nebo, threat- been known by Dr. Clarke for some time. He ened him sharply that his supply of food was given a very thorough examination, in- would be shut off if anything happened to cluding an examination of the stool and the Rob and that he and his people would be urine. All was found normal, but as he lay in driven away from the Mission. At once Nebo bed he gradually grew weaker. Dr. Clarke agreed to go with them to see Rob. He leaned called upon the foreman of the Kanakas to over Rob's bed and told the sick man that it come to the hospital to give the man assur- was all a mistake, a mere joke—indeed, that ance, but on reaching the foot of the bed, the he had not pointed a bone at him at all. The foreman leaned over, looked at the patient, relief, Dr. Lambert testifies, was almost in- and then turned to Dr. Clarke saying, "Yes, stantaneous; that evening Rob was back at doctor, close up him he die" (i.e., he is nearly work, quite happy again, and in full posses- dead). The next day, at 11 o'clock in the mom- sion of his physical strength. ing, he ceased to live. A postmortem examina- VOL. xrx, NO. 3, 1957 184 VOODOO DEATH tion revealed nothing that could in any way imagines is pouring into his body. His cheeks account for the fatal outcome. blanch and his eyes become glassy and the ex- Another observer with medical training, Dr. pression of his face becomes horribly distorted. W. E. Roth (1897), who served for three . He attempts to shriek but usually the sound years as government surgeon among the primi- chokes in his throat, and all that one might see is froth at his mouth. His body begins to trem- tive people of north-central Queensland, has ble and the muscles twist involuntarily. He also given pertinent testimony. "So rooted sways backwards and falls to the ground, and sometimes is this belief on the part of the after a short time appears to be in a swoon; but patient," Roth wrote, "that some enemy has soon after he writhes as if in mortal agony, and, 'pointed' the bone at him, that he will actually covering his face with his hands, begins to moan. lie down to die, and succeed in the attempt, After a while he becomes very composed and even at the expense of refusing food and crawls to his wurley.