STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2016 Ministry of Environment and Energy Republic of Maldives STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT 2016 Ministry of Environment and Energy Republic of Maldives © Ministry of Environment and Energy Handhuvaree Hingun Maafannu, Male’, 20392 Maldives www.environment.gov.mv Written by Majeedha Mohamed Proofread and critical review Dr.Mizna Mohamed Layout and Design Mohamed Samah ISBN: Citation - MEE. (2017). State of the Environment 2016, Ministry of Environment and Energy Acknowledgements / i -Ì>Ìi v Ì i ÛÀiÌ Óä£È ÀiyiVÌÃ Ì Ã v `i`V>Ìi` ivvÀÌ LÞ Ì i Ministry of Environment and Energy. The Ministry highly appreciates the valuable assistance from various government authorities, non-governmental organisations and other stakeholders for their contribution of data and information in compiling Ì ÃÀi«ÀÌ°/ iÃi >Ûi`ii`i`ÌÃ}wV>ÌÃ} ÌÃ]VÃÌÀÕVÌÛiÃÕ}}iÃÌà and information leading to a more comprehensive report. The Ministry is grateful to all atoll and island councils for taking time in completing the surveys for the purpose of this report. The inputs from these surveys were invaluable in compiling this report. Special thanks and appreciation goes to the staff of the Environment Department who assisted greatly from the beginning in developing this report. The Ministry acknowledges the work undertaken by Ms. Majeedha Mohamed for her dedication and various efforts in producing this report. 006 Foreword The Maldives is highly dependent on our natural environment – from our economy to our social well-being and indeed our entire way of life, is inherently dependent on our environment. The government of Maldives recognises the critical role of the environment in national development and continues to make every effort to ensure the protection and preservation of our environment. To design and implement effective environmental policies, it is important to obtain reliable and quality data on the state of the environment. It is then imperative that we develop national capacity and mechanisms to this regard. The State of the Environment reports is part of the government’s efforts to institutionalise such mechanisms. In addition to this, the govern- ment is also taking necessary steps to further develop and strengthen the environmental reporting through enhancing the technical and human capacities. These will be critical as we seek to enhance the science-policy interface in our policy interventions. The State of the Environment 2016 presents the most up-to-date informa- tion on the current status and trends related to the environment sector. It encompasses various aspects including biodiversity, climate change, energy and the coastal environment, amongst others. In this manner, the report takes stock, tracks the progress we have made over the years, and also highlights the challenges and areas where interventions are necessary to ensure the environmental integrity for current and future generations. The compilation of a report of this magnitude requires the co-operation and participation of multiple stakeholders. As such, I take the opportunity to express my gratitude to all participants involved in the process. It is my sincere hope that all stakeholders utilise the information presented in this report and integrate these into relevant policies. Thoriq Ibrahim Minister of Environment and Energy Acronyms 007 ABC Atmospheric Brown Clouds ADRC Asian Disaster Reduction Centre AGE Acute Gastro Enteritis AOSIS Alliance of Small Island States ARI Acute Respiratory tract Infection BACP Baa Atoll Conservation Project BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem BOD Biological Oxygen Demand CBD Convention of Biological Diversity CCAC The Climate and Clean Air Coalition CCAP Climate Change Adaptation Project CCTF Climate Change Trust Fund CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CO2e Carbon dioxide equivalent CoTs ÀÜv/ ÀÃ-Ì>Àwà EC Elemental Carbon EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EPA Environmental Protection Authority EPPA Environment Protection and Preservation Act FAO Food and Agricultural Organization GCM Global Climate Model GDP Gross Domestic Product GWh Giga Watt Hour HCFC Þ`ÀV ÀyÀV>ÀL HPA Health Protection Authority IMO International Maritime Organization INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contribution IOTC Indian Ocean Tuna Commission IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM Integrated Water Resource Management kWh Kilo Watt Hour kWp Kilo Watt Peak Ltr Litre MCCPF Maldives Climate Change Policy Framework 008 MCOH Maldives Climate Observatory of Hanimaadhoo MCS Maldives Customs Service MEA Maldives Energy Authority MEE Ministry of Environment and Energy MEEW Ministry of Environment Energy and Water MHAHE Ministry of Home Affairs Housing and Environment MHE Ministry of Housing and Environment MHTE Ministry of Housing Transport and Environment MNDF Maldives National Defence Force MoFA Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture MoH Ministry of Health Gg Giga Grams GHG Greenhouse Gas MT Metric Tons MVR >`Û>,ÕwÞ>> MW Mega Watt MWSC Maldives Water and Sewerage Company NAPA National Adaptation Plan of Action NBS National Bureau of Statistics NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NCMF National Coral Monitoring Framework NDMC National Disaster Management Centre NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration OC Organic Carbon PM Particulate Matter POPs Persistent Organic Pollutants PV Photo Voltaic RCM Regional Climate Model RIMES Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard Early Warning System SD Standard Deviation SIDS Small Island Developing State SLCP Short Lived Climate Pollutants SNC Second National Communication SoE State of Environment SREP Scaling-up Renewable Energy Project SRES Special Report on Emission Scenarios SST Sea Surface Temperature MoT Ministry of Tourism MRC Marine Research Centre TCM Total Carbonaceous Matter TEQ Toxic Equivalence UNEP United Nations Environment Program UNESCO 1Ìi` >Ìà `ÕV>Ì>]-ViÌwV>` ÕÌÕÀ>"À}>â>Ì 009 UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change WHO World Health Organization Protected area of Kottey, Addu City 010 Contents Acknowledgements 005 Foreword 006 Acronyms 007 List of Tables 013 List of Figures 015 Executive Summary 022 Chapter 1 Introduction 038 Chapter 2 Drivers of Environmental Change 046 2.1. Climate Change 050 2.2. Population Growth 051 2.3. Burgeoning Urbanization 052 2.4. Economic Development 053 2.4.1. Tourism 054 2.4.2. Fisheries 057 2.4.3. Agriculture 058 Chapter 3 State and Trends of Environment 060 3.1. Air quality 063 3.1.1. Ambient Air Quality 064 3.1.2. Greenhouse Gases 065 3.1.3. Pressures 067 3.1.4. Transboundary Air Pollution 071 3.1.5 Health Impacts 074 3.1.6. Government Responses 075 3.2. Coastal and Marine Environment 076 3.2.1. Status of Coastal and Marine Environment 077 3.2.2. Threats to Coastal and Environment 082 3.2.3. Impacts 087 3.2.4. Government Responses 090 3.3. Biodiversity 094 011 3.3.1. Biodiversity Status of Maldives 094 3.3.2. Threats to Biodiversity 103 3.3.3. Government Responses 111 3.4. Water resources 124 3.4.1. Status of Water Resources 124 3.4.2. Pressures 127 3.4.3. Impacts 129 3.4.4. Government Responses 131 Chapter 4 Key Environmental Issues 132 4.1. Climate Change 135 4.1.1. Current and Future Trends 135 4.1.2. Climate Change Impacts 140 4.1.3. Vulnerabilities to Climate Change 143 4.1.4. Government Responses 147 4.2. Energy Security 153 4.2.1. Energy Supply 153 4.2.2. Electricity Generation 158 4.2.3. Electricity Demand and Consumption 159 4.2.4. Challenges to Energy Sector in Maldives 160 4.2.5. Government Responses 161 4.3. Solid Waste Management 167 4.3.1. Current State 168 4.3.2. Issues in Waste Management 176 4.3.3. Impacts on Environment and Human Health 176 4.3.4. Government Responses 177 4.4. Chemical Management 180 4.4.1. Status and Trends 182 4.4.2. Impacts 186 4.4.3. Government Responses 188 Chapter 5 Environmental Governance 190 5.1. National laws and Policies 193 012 5.1.1. National Policies 193 5.1.2. Acts 196 5.1.3. Regulations 198 5.2. International and Regional Agreements 202 References 206 Maldivian Pond Heron Wetland - Fuvahmulah List of Tables 013 Table 2-1: Number of administrative islands by size of Maldivian population: Adapted from (NBS, 2015b) 053 Table 3-1: Summary of the concentrations (μg/m3) and percentages of carbonaceous species in PM2.5 in Male’ and MCOH. Adapted from (Budhavant, et al., 2015). 065 Table 3-2: Reef Area Statistics of Maldives. Adapted from (Naseer & Hatcher, 2004) 077 Table 3-3: Major reclamation activities in inhabited islands. Adapted from (MEE, 2015a). 086 Table 3-4: Major conventions and programs relating to protection of coastal and marine environment 090 Table 3-5: Status of coastal protection projects from 2013 to 2016 (Data provided by: Coastal Protection Unit, Ministry of Environment and Energy, 2016). 093 Table 3-6: Mangrove species found in Maldives. Information extracted from (FAO, 2016; Saleem & Nileysha, 2003). 096 Table 3-7: Families of hard and soft corals found in the Maldives. Adapted from (MEE, 2015a). 100 Table 3-8: -Ì>ÌÕÃv>ÀiÌÕÀÌiÃ>`ÛiÃ>`Ì iÀ}L>Ã}wV>Vi 101 Table 3-9: Eight most common species of reef sharks seen in Maldives (MEE, 2015a). 103 Table 3-10: >À ëiVià v L>Ì wà ÕÃi` «i>`i wà iÀÞ°Ƃ`>«Ìi`vÀ (Jauharee, Neal, & Miller, 2015). 104 Table 3-11: Plant pests and pathogens reported from islands. 110 Table 3-12: Marine species protected under the Maldives EPPA 4/93 119 Table 3-13: Species protected under the Maldives Fisheries Act, Law No. 5/87 119 014 Table 3-14: List of export prohibited species and products from the Maldives. (MEE, 2015a) 120 Table 3-15: /ii v `iÛi«iÌà à >À wà iÀià >` >>}iiÌ° -ÕÀVi (Sinan, Adam, & Anderson, 2011). 121 Table 3-16: Timeline of developments on turtle conservation and management in the Maldives.