Religion Five years after The Crucible was first produced, historian Edmund S. Morgan offered this trenchant summary of Puritanism’s inherent religious tensions: Puritanism required that a man devote his life to seeking salvation but told him he was helpless to do anything but evil. Puritanism required that he rest his whole hope in Christ but taught him that Christ would utterly reject him unless before he was born God had foreordained his salvation. Puritanism required that man refrain from sin but told him that he would sin anyhow. Puritanism required that he reform the world in the image of God’s holy kingdom but taught him that the evil of the world was incurable and inevitable. Puritanism required that he work to the best of his ability at whatever task was set before KLP DQG SDUWDNH RI WKH JRRG WKLQJV WKDW *RG KDG ¿OOHG WKH ZRUOG with but told him he must enjoy his work and his pleasures only, as it ZHUHDEVHQWPLQGHGO\ZLWKKLVDWWHQWLRQ¿[HGRQ*RG Miller’s play reflects this constellation of paradoxes in its characters’ earnest seeking after truth despite their blindness to their own ignorance, their determination to root out evil wherever they might find it except in their own assumptions and beliefs, and in their longing for a perfectly moral life that would dominate their irrepressible human passions. For them, the devil was a spiritual reality that encompassed these and other barriers to a pious and godly life. As Miller himself commented, religious faith is central to the play’s intent: The form, the shape, the meaning of The Crucible were all compounded out of the faith of those who were hanged. They were asked to be lonely and they refused. They were asked to deny their belief in a God of all men, not merely a god each individual could manipulate to his interests. They were asked to call a phantom real and to deny their touch with reality. (Theatre Essays To modern audiences, the Puritan belief in witchcraft may seem immediate and incontrovertible evidence of a skewed mindset. But for a culture rooted in the moral and theological authority of the xii Critical Insights The Crucible after Six Decades Christopher Baker In 2010, the Denver Post invited a panel of judges to vote on the “Ten Most Important American Plays” (Moore). Arthur Miller’s The Crucible came in at number nine; his Death of a Salesman was first. Such rankings are the stuff of endless debate among scholars and theatergoers, but there is no debating the permanent rank that Miller holds in the history of American theater or of the place that The Crucible holds after over sixty years on stages all over the world. It is Miller’s most-often-performed play and has appealed to a variety of audiences and cultures who respond to its electric issues that extend far beyond a miscarriage of justice in a seventeenth-century North American colony. Miller assessed the play’s meaning in 2000: More than a political metaphor, more than a moral tale, The Crucible, as it developed for me over the period of more than a year, became the DZHVRPHHYLGHQFHRIWKHSRZHURIWKHLQÀDPHGKXPDQLPDJLQDWLRQ WKHSRHWU\RIVXJJHVWLRQDQG¿QDOO\WKHtragedy of heroic resistance to a society possessed to the point of ruin. (Echoes “I had great joy writing [The Crucible],” Miller recalled in 1985, “more than with almost any other play I’ve written” (Theatre Essays 7KHSOD\EOHQGVWKHVRFLDODQGUHOLJLRXVFRQÀLFWVRI angst-ridden Christians with the tensions experienced in any age when powerful, authoritarian institutions seek to bend individuals WRWKHLUZLOO,WGUDPDWL]HVWKHVWUXJJOHVRIFOHDUO\ÀDZHGSHRSOHWR arrive at a sense of justice that will somehow not become tainted with their own shortcomings. And it movingly portrays the agony of a couple that seeks to defend their relationship against tensions that would wreck their loving marriage. The play continues to appeal to audiences through its exploration of the themes of religion, power, psychology, and love. The Crucible after Six Decades xi $OOLQDOOWKHSUHVHQWYROXPHR൵HUVDQXQXVXDOO\ZLGHYDULHW\ of responses to Miller’s play, not only from the essayists themselves but from the many other persons whose opinions they report and describe. x Critical Insights Scapegoats, Satanism and the Sacred: Arthur Miller’s The Crucible Nicolas Tredell Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible (1953), considered in light of René Girard’s anthropological study La violence and le sacré [Violence and the Sacred@ SRZHUIXOO\GUDPDWL]HVWKHZD\LQZKLFKD society finds scapegoats to try to allay the potential for internecine YLROHQFHWKDWWKUHDWHQVWRWHDULWDSDUW²EXWWKXVLURQLFDOO\FUHDWHV a situation in which the scapegoating process itself starts to release internecine violence and tear it apart anyway. For Girard, the scapegoating process has its roots in ritual sacrifice, which provides a controlled way, endowed with the aura of the sacred, of releasing violent energies in societies that have not yet developed a legal and judicial system. “Le sacrifice a pour fonction d’apaiser les violences intestines, d’empêcher les conflits d’éclater” [“The function of the sacrifice is to allay internal violence, to prevent conflicts from EXUVWLQJRXW´@ *LUDUG The society The Crucible depicts no longer practices ritual VDFUL¿FHEHFDXVHWKHFUXFL¿[LRQRI&KULVWSURYLGHVDV\PEROLFLPDJH of a redemptive killing that need not be enacted upon a human or animal victim, and because a legal system has taken on the tasks of arrest, trial and punishment and aims to identify, not an innocent victim, but a culprit who supposedly deserves capital punishment. In this respect, ODZLVDFRQWLQXDWLRQRIVDFUL¿FHE\RWKHUPHDQV But Salem in 1692, as Miller portrays it in the play, is also a society in which the strains are so great that these religious and judicial DOWHUQDWLYHVWRULWXDOVDFUL¿FHKDYHVWDUWHGWREUHDNGRZQWKH\DUH no longer adequate to defuse the potential for internecine violence: DVDFUL¿FLDOYLFWLPRUYLFWLPVPXVWEHIRXQGEXWFDQQRWEHQDPHG DVVXFKWKHVDFUL¿FLDODFWLVMXVWL¿HGE\religion and still retains a sacred aura but it has to be mediated by a judicial system that VHOHFWV DQG LGHQWL¿HV WKRVH ZKR KDYH VXSSRVHGO\ EURNHQ WKH law and thus deserve to have controlled violence visited on them in the Scapegoats, Satanism and the Sacred 81 VKDSHRISXQLVKPHQW,WLVWKLVTXHVWIRUOHJDOO\LGHQWL¿DEOH¿JXUHV ZKRFDQEHVDFUL¿FHGWKDWKDVEHFRPHDwitch hunt where the need IRUDVDFUL¿FHDWOHDVWSDUWO\RYHUULGHVGXHSURFHVVDQGSURWRFROVRI evidence. Put this way, it may sound abstract; but it is, of course, DOZD\V LQGLYLGXDO KXPDQ EHLQJV ZKR DUH LQYROYHG LQ VSHFL¿F examples of witch-hunting, as accused, accusers, investigators, ODZ R൶FHUV MXGJHV MDLORUV DQG KDQJPHQ The Crucible presents LWVDXGLHQFHZLWKVXFKKXPDQEHLQJV²EDVHGRQUHDOKLVWRULFDOO\ GRFXPHQWHG¿JXUHVWUDQVPXWHGE\0LOOHU¶VGUDPDWLFLPDJLQDWLRQ² in a situation of crisis. Primal Panic The Salem that The Crucible presents is plagued by a primal panic centred on the death and possibly mortal illness of children, a source of grief to the parents and of demographic threat to a community conscious of an imperative to increase and multiply that is both biological and biblical. As the first extended prose passage in the play points out, Salem is a beleaguered community near the “edge of the wilderness” and of an “American continent” that is “full of mystery” and “dark and threatening,” and out of which “Indian tribes marauded from time to time,” the “heathen[s]” that claimed Christian lives (Miller 14). It must maintain its discipline and its numbers in order to survive, and child deaths deplete the population. act one opens on stage with the Reverend Samuel Parris’s ten-year- old daughter, Betty, lying “inert” in bed (13), perhaps seriously stricken; later in the act, Ann, the wife of Thomas Putnam, laments that she has already lost seven infants and that her daughter Ruth now lies sick. 6HHNLQJ D FDXVH IRU WKLV DW D WLPH ZKHQ VFLHQWL¿F PHGLFLQH ZDVRQO\VWDUWLQJWRGHYHORS$QQ3XWQDP¿QGVLWLQ6DWDQDQGKHU language has a poetic force that gives her diagnosis greater authority. She says of Betty and Ruth: “It’s death, y’know, it’s death drivin’ into them, forked and hoofed” (Miller 21). Here, the repetition of “it’s death,” the alliterative reinforcement provided by the plosive initial “d” of the present participle “drivin’,” and the vivid phrase yoking two familiar synecdoches for the diabolic (“forked and hoofed”) 82 Critical Insights intensify the idea of diabolic destruction; the commonplace phrase “y’know” takes on a quality of cognitive authority, as if appealing to a widely shared and well-established knowledge. A little later, she describes how her seven babies died: “each would wither in my arms the very night of their birth” (23), where the verb “wither” suggests a plant becoming dry and shrivelled, or a person getting old (as in the expression “withering with age”), a process that would normally extend over weeks or years but is telescoped here into what does indeed seem an unnaturally short space of time, “the very night of their birth,” an echo of Samuel Beckett’s image in a play almost contemporary with The Crucible, Waiting for Godot (written LQ )UHQFK (QJOLVK YHUVLRQ ¿UVW SHUIRUPHG SXEOLVKHG 1956), when Pozzo says of women: “They give birth astride of a grave” (Beckett 83). This seems to be literally Ann Putnam’s lot. Ruth Putnam still survives, but, according to Ann, she has become a “secret child” who “shrivels like a sucking mouth were pullin’ on her life too” (Miller 23); the image of secrecy implies a child mysteriously estranged from her parents, while the simile of the “sucking mouth,” which might more usually evoke