DEMOCRACY in Latin America Towards a Citizens’ Democracy Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay, Venezuela United Nations Development Programme The analysis and policy recommendations contained in this Report do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), its Executive Board or its Member States. The Report is an independent publication prepared at the request of UNDP. It is the result of collaboration between a group of relevant consultants and experts and the team that produced the Report on Democracy in Latin America © 2004 by the United Nations Development Programme 1 UN Plaza, New York, New York, 10017, United States of America www.undp.org Of this edition: © 2004 by Aguilar, Altea, Taurus, Alfaguara, S.A. Leandro N. Alem 720, (1001) Ciudad de Buenos Aires www.alfaguara.com.ar The translation of the Report into English was done by a team of translators, headed by Merril Stevenson, and including Joanna Richardson, Celia Vartalitis de Podestá, Elena Feeney, Isabel Onetti de Mora, and Rafaela Gunner. The text was reviewed by Thomas Scheetz. The English version of the Statistical Compendium was prepared by Gerardo Munck and Wendy Prentice. A final reading of the Report was carried out by Gerardo Noto and Myriam Mendez-Montalvo. The English version of this Report was edited by Richard Jones, Exile: Design & Editorial Services ([email protected]) ISBN: 987-04-0085-X Queda hecho el depósito legal que marca la ley 11723 Impreso en la Argentina. Printed in Argentina Editorial Direction: Fernando Esteves Editorial Coordination: Mercedes Sacchi Cover Design Idea: Fischer America Argentina Desktop Composition: Mónica Deleis and Lenguaje Claro Consultora Proofreading: Luz Freire and Lenguaje Claro Consultora United Nation Development Programme. Democracy in Latin América : towards a citizen’s democracy. - 1a ed. - Buenos Aires : Aguilar, Altea, Taurus, Alfaguara, 2005. 288p. +1 CD Rom ; 30x21 cm. Traducido por: Merril Stevenson…[et al.] ISBN 987-04-0085-X 1. Programa de las Naciones Unidas para el Desarrollo. I. Stevenson, Merril, trad. II. Título. CDD 307.76 First Spanish Edition: April 2004 Second Spanish Edition: December 2004 First English Edition: February 2005 This Report was prepared with the financial assistance of the European Union. Its analyses and recommendations should in no way be considered to reflect the official views of the European Union. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the Editor. Note: This publication is an English translation of the revised second edition of the Spanish version of the Report La democracia en América Latina, published on December 2004 (www.democracia.undp.org). United Nations Development Programme Administrator Mark Malloch Brown Associate Administrator Zéphirin Diabré Assistant Administrator and Regional Director for Latin Coordinator of the Regional Programme America and the Caribbean for Latin America and the Caribbean Elena Martínez Freddy Justiniano Resident Representative in Argentina Governance Adviser of the Regional Programme Carmelo Angulo Barturen (Until March 2004) for Latin America and the Caribbean Carlos Felipe Martínez (Since April 2004) Myriam Méndez Montalvo Project Director Dante Caputo This Report could not have been written without the generous contributions of many individuals and organizations. We would like to thank all of them sincerely. A detailed list of those involved can be found on page 201 of this publication. ■ Project on Democracy in Latin America Project Director Dante Caputo Consultants on Thematic Areas Theoretical Framework Indicators Guillermo O’Donnell, with comments provided Gerardo Munck headed the team integrated by by Bruce Ackerman, Andrew Arato, Renato Bos- David Altman, Jeffrey A. Bosworth, Jay Verkui- chi, Fernando Calderón, Catherine Conaghan, len and Daniel Zovatto. Julio Cotler, Larry Diamond, José Eisenberg, Ma- nuel A. Garretón, David Held, Céli Regina Jardim Round of Consultations Pinto, Jennifer McCoy, Adalberto Moreira Car- Diego Achard, Augusto Ramírez Ocampo, Edel- doso, Juan Méndez, José Nun, Pierre Rosanva- berto Torres Rivas, Gonzalo Pérez del Castillo, llon, Alain Touraine, Laurence Whitehead. Claudia Dangond, Raúl Alconada Sempé, Rodol- fo Mariani, Leandro García Silva, Adriana Raga, Opinion Study Luis E. González, Gonzalo Kmeid, and Pablo Da Jorge Vargas headed the team integrated by Mi- Silveira. A team that analyzed the results was led guel Gómez Barrantes, Tatiana Benavides, Evelyn by Hilda Herzer and composed of Verónica De Villarreal and Lorena Kikut, which designed and Valle, María M. Di Virgilio, Graciela Kisilesky, analyzed the opinion poll Latinobarómetro/ Adriana Redondo and María Carla Rodríguez. PRODDAL 2002. Coordinators Coordinator, Andean Countries Coordinator, Central American Augusto Ramírez Ocampo, with the cooperation Countries and Dominican of Claudia Dangond, Elisabeth Ungar and Republic Amalfy Fernández. Edelberto Torres Rivas, with the collaboration of Claudio Luján. Coordinators, MERCOSUR Countries Institutional Coordinator Dante Caputo and Raúl Alconada Sempé. Gonzalo Pérez del Castillo. Project on Democracy in Latin America 5 Project Team in Buenos Aires Programme Officer: Technical Team: Rosa Zlachevsky. Leandro García Silva, Rodolfo Mariani and Thomas Scheetz. Support Team: María Eugenia Bóveda and Fabián de Special Collaboration: Achaval. Fabián Bosoer and Daniel Sazbón. Dissemination of the Report Milena Leivi, Milagros Olivera, Sandra Rojas and Emilio Sampietro (Spanish version). Emilio Sampietro (English version). Advisors José Luis Barros Horcasitas, Fernando Calderón, Alberto Couriel, Joaquín Estefanía, Gustavo Fernández Saavedra, Enrique Ganuza, Manuel Antonio Garretón, Edmundo Jarquín, Marta Lagos, Marcos Novaro, Vicente Palermo, Arturo O’Connell, Guillermo O’Donnell and Carlos Ominami. Consultants Gloria Ardaya, Horacio Boneo, Sebastián Campanario, Eva Capece, Julio Godio, Luis Eduardo González, Juan Carlos Herrera, Néstor Lavergne, Norbert Lechner, Silvia Lospennato and Luis Verdesoto. Report Readers’ Group Carmelo Angulo Barturen, Víctor Arango, Marcia de Castro, Juan Pablo Corlazzoli, Juan Alberto Fuentes, Enrique Ganuza, Freddy Justiniano (Coordinator), Thierry Lemaresquier, Carlos Lopes, Carlos F. Martínez, Magdy Martínez, Myriam Méndez-Montalvo, Gerardo Noto, William Orme, Stefano Pettinato, Juan Rial, Harold Robinson, Martín Santiago and Luis Francisco Thais. 6 Democracy in Latin America Contents 13 ■ Foreword by the Administrator of the United Nations Development Programme 17 ■ Preface by the Regional Director for Latin America and the Caribbean of UNDP 21 ■ Introduction by the Director of the Report 21 Liberty, Democracy and Politics 25 ■ Overview 25 Introduction 26 Democracy and the Idea of Democracy in Latin America 27 Balance Sheet on Integral Citizenship 29 Perceptions and Support of Leaders and Citizens 30 Elements of an Agenda 31 Methodology and Structure of the Report FIRST SECTION 33 The Development of Democracy in Latin America 35 ■ The Challenge: from a Democracy of Voters to a Democracy of Citizens 39 Democracy, Poverty and Inequality: a Latin American Triangle 41 Balance Sheet of Reforms and Realities 45 International Organizations and the Fostering of Democracy 49 ■ An Exploration of the Development of Democracy 50 An Unfinished Debate 52 Theoretical Groundings The Idea of Democracy Social Deficits as Democratic Deficits The Scope of Democracy in the Report Democracy, the Political Regime and the State The Citizen: Source of, and Justification for, the Authority of the Democratic State Contents 7 The Citizen: the Subject of Democracy Citizenship consists of more than Political Rights, and so does Democracy State and Citizenship 65 A Diminished Statehood and Democratic Fragility 67 The Specific Historical Characteristics of the Democracies of Latin America 70 How much Citizenship does a Democracy need? SECOND SECTION 75 Empirical Basis of the Report 77 ■ Democratic Development Indicators 77 Political, Civil and Social Citizenship 78 Political Citizenship Electoral Democracy Index (EDI) Other Indicators of the Democratic Regime to ensure Access to Office Electoral Participation Electoral Competition and the Selection of Candidates Electoral Representation 90 Evaluation of the Democratic Regime to ensure Access to Office Other Dimensions of Political Citizenship Classic Constitutional Powers Mandated Oversight Agencies Mechanisms of Direct Democracy Corruption in Public Office Cronyism 100 Conclusions on Political Citizenship: Achievements and Failings 102 Civil Citizenship Equality under the Law and Protection against Discrimination Right to Life, Physical Integrity and Security Administration of Justice Freedom of the Press and the Right to Information Conclusions on Civil Citizenship: Achievements and Deficiencies 118 Social Citizenship Basic Needs Social Integration Civil Society as the Promoter of Social Citizenship Conclusions about Social Citizenship: its Achievements and Shortcomings 131 ■ How Latin Americans see their Democracy 132 Three Orientations towards Democracy: Democratic, Ambivalent and Non-Democratic Scope of the Orientations towards Democracy Distance between the Different Orientations