THE WESTERN IMAGE OF TURKS FROM THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE 21ST CENTURY: THE MYTH OF ‘TERRIBLE TURK’ AND ‘LUSTFUL TURK’ Nevsal Olcen Tiryakioglu A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements of Nottingham Trent University for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2015 Copyright Statement This work is the intellectual property of the author. You may copy up to 5% of this work for private study, or personal, non-commercial research. Any re-use of the information contained within this document should be fully referenced, quoting the author, title, university, degree level and pagination. Queries or requests for any other use, or if a more substantial copy is required, should be directed in the owner(s) of the Intellectual Property Rights. i Abstract The Western image of Turks is identified with two distinctive stereotypes: ‘Terrible Turk’ and ‘Lustful Turk.’ These stereotypical images are deeply rooted in the history of the Ottoman Empire and its encounters with Christian Europe. Because of their fear of being dominated by Islam, European Christians defined the Turks as the wicked ‘Other’ against their perfect ‘Self.’ Since the beginning of Crusades, the Western image of Turks is associated with cruelty, barbarity, murderousness, immorality, and sexual perversion. These characteristics still appear in cinematic representations of Turks. In Western films such as Lawrence of Arabia and Midnight Express, the portrayals of Turks echo the stereotypes of ‘terrible Turk’ and ‘lustful Turk.’ This thesis argues that these stereotypes have transformed into a myth and continued to exist uniformly in Western contemporary cinema. The thesis attempts to ascertain the uniformity and consistency of the cinematic image of Turks and determine the associations between this image and the myths of ‘terrible Turk’ and ‘lustful Turk.’ To achieve this goal, this thesis examines the trajectory of the Turkish image in Western discourse between the 11th and 21st centuries. The discourse analysis focuses on the Western writings, speeches, sermons, and literary texts, including the Crusade rhetoric, Renaissance humanist discourse, Early Modern English drama, and Orientalist travelogue. To establish the continuity of the Turkish stereotypes in Western discourse, the thesis also presents a critical analysis of Western contemporary cinema, including both American and European films. The methodology of the thesis is based on two main theoretical approaches: a) representational practices, which involve the concepts of Otherness, stereotypes, myth, narrative, discourse and intertextuality; and b) Orientalism. These concepts provide a better understanding for the mythical characteristics of the Turkish stereotype. The thesis also offers an exploratory look at the social media platforms and their possible impact on the Turkish image in the future. ii Dedication To my children Selin and Timur, and to my husband Murat, for being in my life. iii Acknowledgements It has been a long and challenging journey with many ups and downs along the way. I have many people to thank for their support and guidance on this endeavor. First, I would like to acknowledge Professor Joost Van Loon without whom none of this would have been possible. I am grateful to him for giving me the opportunity to realize my dream. I also thank him for inspiring me to expand my horizon. I would like to recognize those who have provided invaluable contributions to this study. I especially thank my former director of studies, Professor Patrick Williams, for his support, encouragement and helpful criticism. I also would like to thank Dr. Roy Smith for his insight and advice. Most of all, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. Cuneyt Cakirlar, who stepped in to be my director of studies for the last two years. I am sincerely thankful for his excellent guidance, motivation, helpful suggestions, and prompt communication. Without his support, encouragement and inspiration, I would not have been able to finish this journey. I am indebted to my loving husband, Professor Murat Tiryakioglu, for supporting, encouraging and motivating me throughout this study. Without his infinite love, sacrifices and patience, I would not have been able to do this. My debt to my daughter, Selin, and my son, Timur, goes beyond what I could readily express in words. I would like to thank them for their patience and understanding for the soccer games, school parties and field trips I missed while I was studying. I hope they will be proud of me, as much as I am proud of them. Last but not least, I wish to express my deepest love and appreciation to both my late father, whom I miss every day, and to my mother for teaching me to be responsible, diligent and honest. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 1 CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................... 16 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................................. 16 Representational Practices ............................................................................... 17 Otherness ..................................................................................................... 17 Stereotypes .................................................................................................. 22 Myth, Narrative and Historical Discourse .................................................. 26 Discourse and Intertextuality ...................................................................... 32 Orientalism....................................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER 2 ........................................................................................................... 45 THE IMAGE OF TURKS BETWEEN THE 11th AND 16th CENTURIES: HISTORIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................... 45 Representation of Turks during the Crusades .................................................. 45 The Seljuk Turks and the First Crusade ...................................................... 45 Muslims as the “Other” during the Middle Ages ........................................ 50 The Turk as the “Devil” in Crusade Propaganda ........................................ 53 The Rise of the Ottoman Turks ................................................................... 54 Crusade of Nicopolis ................................................................................... 56 Crusade of Varna......................................................................................... 58 The Renaissance Image of the Turks ............................................................... 60 The Fall of Constantinople .......................................................................... 60 The Turk as ‘Barbarian’ in Humanist Discourse ........................................ 65 The Ottoman Peril ....................................................................................... 70 The ‘Grand Turk’ ........................................................................................ 72 The Siege of Vienna (1529) ........................................................................ 73 CHAPTER 3 ........................................................................................................... 76 16th AND 17th CENTURY LITERARY REPRESENTATIONS OF TURKS ... 76 The Image of Turks in Western Historical Texts, Treatises, and Essays ........ 77 The Excellence of Turkish Military Discipline ........................................... 78 The Virtue of Turkish Unity ....................................................................... 80 Turks as the ‘Scourge of God’ and the ‘Rod of God’s Wrath’ ................... 81 The Present Terror of the World ................................................................. 83 The Image of Turks in English Drama ............................................................ 86 Background ................................................................................................. 86 The ‘Turk’ in Early Modern English Drama............................................... 88 v The Cruel Turk ............................................................................................ 91 Imperial Fratricide ....................................................................................... 93 Turning Turk ............................................................................................... 95 Turkish ‘Otherness’ and Orientalism in English Drama ............................. 98 CHAPTER 4 ......................................................................................................... 109 THE WESTERN IMAGE OF TURKS DURING THE 18TH AND 19TH CENTURIES: ORIENTALIST DISCOURSE ................................................. 109 Background ............................................................................................... 109 Turkish Image in Orientalist Discourse ......................................................... 113 The Indolent Turk ..................................................................................... 113 Ignorance and Backwardness of Turks ..................................................... 120 Ottoman Despotism ................................................................................... 124 Harem and Lascivious Turkish Woman ...................................................