THE OXFORD COMPANION TO INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAT IUSTICE Editor-in-chief Antonio Cassese OXFORD l'NIVERSITY PRESS Editors Editor-in-chief Antonio Cassese Professor of lnternational Law, University of Florence; former ludge and President, ICTY Editorial Committee Guido Acquaviva Legal Oficer, ICTY Dapo Akande Unitersity Lecturer in Public International Law ønd Yamani Fellow St. Peter's College, Oxford Laurel Baig Legal Oficer,ICTY Robert Cryer Professor of International and Criminal Law, Birminghøm Law School Urmila Dé Editorial Assistant, Journøl of International Criminal lustice Paola Gaeta Proþssor of lnternational Law and International Criminal Law, University of Florence and University of Geneva |ulia Geneuss Research Fellow in International Criminal Lau Humboldt Ufiíl'ersitl, Berlin Katrina Gustafson Legal Oficer, ICTY Florian |essberger Lichtenberg Professor of International and Comparative Criminal Law Humb oldt Uniyersity, B erlin Jia Bing Bing Professor of International Law, Tsinghua University, Beijing Sandra Krähenmann Research and teaching assistant, Geneva Academy of lnternational Humanitarian Law and Human Rights, Gefieva tfl: Sources of International Criminal Law A'J DAPO AKANDE *t;é ¿¡ i¡ tr€{r¡!r l:?àzat¡' ít¡rðþr: r. Introduction . r,:iJ:ii. International criminal law (ICL) is a part ofpublic international law and its sources are J¡t i.¡r: ¡, .¡l;¡¡,. ,. , to be found in the sources ofinternational law. However, in considering the sources of .,i¡ .,,t :, , ICL it is important to identify the organ which is tasked with the application of that :j¿jj.:,.t body oflaw or ofnorms derived from thatbodyoflaw. This is because prosecutions for place in international tribunals, :,; ¿ìÌ,ìi. international crimes may take either criminal before (mixed ,¡Jl i,,;., national courts or in hybrid or 'internationalized' tribunals or international- :i,,-¡.'., ized courts). Whilst international tribunals will usually have the freedom to apply .:1Ì¿r{ I . the rules and principles of internâtional law, national courts do not necessarily have t.:,,;: ',:l such freedom. Likewise, though all international criminal tribunals.will draw on the ':,.t\:' recognized sources ofinternational law the apþlicable law before such tribunals may vary depending on the provisions ofthe Statute ofthe Tribunal. Furthermore, some :':::.,. international criminal tribunals maybe authorizedto apply or have regard to national ,,,i, i: law. Thus, though the Special Court for Sierfa Leone (SCSL) is an international .;, : , tribunall established by a treaty, it is authorized to prosecute both crimes under inter- ,' t-., national law and under the law ofSierra Leõne,'In addition, the adhoc United Nations :tì,.r (UN) Tribunals (the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tlibunal for Rwanda (ICTR)) and the SCSL, , . which are all established with regard to crimes committed in particular territories are 'i,, . authorized to'have recourse to the general practice regarding prison sentences'in the relevant national courts of those territories.3 z. The Application of International Law in Domestic Prosecutíons for International Crimes Whetheror not national courts mayapplyinternational lawdirectlywill depend on the constitutional position ofinternational law within the law ofthat state.In some states, the courts may apply international treaties directl¡ while in otheis treaties can only be applied when they have been incorporated into domestic law through legislation. Although customary international law is part ofthe law ofpractically every state, its position inthe h ierarchy oflaws varies from state to state. In some states (e.9. Germanf Italy, and Greece), customary international law will have the same or a suPerior status 'SeeDecisiononlmmunityfromJurisdiction,Tallot(SCSL-o3-o1-l-o59),AC,3tMay2oo4,SS40-41 ' Art. jSCSLSI. ThespeciålTribunalforLebanoncreatedbySCRes. 1757 (2oo7) isaninternationaltribu- nâlthough onewhich is onlyauthorized to pro6ecute certain crímes under the criminal Code ofLebanon. 3 Àrts ¿+G), z¡(r) and rg(r) Statutes ofthe International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia, for Rwanda and the SCSL (¡espectivelr. 42 Sources of lhternationâI Crim¡nal Law Pan A: Major problems of lnternat¡onal Cr¡m¡na I Justice Sources oflnternat¡onal Cr¡minal Law 43 to otdina¡y domestic legislation while in (e.g. others the United States and the Ur ' subject matter iurisdiction ofthese commissions is defined by international law has ff:::îl,i:ä;;;;y'il::':: :":'rr::'ñ;ï;1#;ii'",'åiìi'""r r"* allowed US courts, most notably in cases such as Qziriir," Yamøshita,r2 Hømilan v. iilTï#i:ï'i.:i':åll'åî,:L:#; ;;;*.*";äIii'jliliffi li"l',Ïi; t,RitmsÍelil,tt to consider whether the charges and the proceedings i.vere in conformity Most states have regislation witi applicable principles ofICL. which provides for the proseiution of conduct the English Hôuse of Lords has held, in R. r fones et aL that 'a crime (see nationar "'" Similarl¡ regisr.,i." ." ìîrå"ä*"r ' iff:ij,i*::::i:::11_.11*Narionat prosecurions ror inte.,,ìtion^at;;*.Jriä;d;:iläi:i,il . iecognized as such in customary international law, . may, but need not, become Part ófthe domestic law ofEngland and Wales without the need for any domestic statute legistat",. u"rv.".,]¿î*i,ä,ä,ili',.nr,,.r,"rcstrc iiïi:ï.,:::",,,Tiordomestic reg$latron in l decision'.l4 The immediate post- Worìd War II prosecutions of German war will itself usually be based on reli or judicial jäi::ï-':;:lî1iffi criminals were conducted by the UK without anJ enabling statutels and on the prem- Ëiäj 11î;:;:i in**i:l*i;:Ï,i:::rË;ff order ro imprem."t tr,",tut i,ir,iffi;;äilä.;;ïä:ä:::,ïl ise that customary international law war crimes had been assimilated into English domestic law.ró The pr4ctical application of direct incorporation of customary ICL 13 some case., not provide à.tää.g,,r",,", I into English law has been blunted by two deveìopments. Firstþ the House of Lords åï:j,iÍ:#,i*"i:i_:j:ï::a tulJ defi nition of rhe :""*ntiln internæ#i:ä., "ibjä;å:ì::,åi::i,'å:# held in the /on es case that while old common law þresumably including old custom- crimes,ali*'::äY.ïff:j"'ljj,:::?::l::::::1":-"1ïìå"'."åii:li,',ä'n,erna,ional international ary international law) ofences continue to exist, new offences may only be created by or over crim", p,o"ia"¿ io, i,, i,ä.î;äJïffi å:ïisted statute.rT Secondly, those international crimes set out in treaties have been codified ffi :'*',i::'li*,.Ï'"1','fjîï,'"''""-"'¡*"i'"'i';#'ä::i";ii::;ï1ï; br statute in UK law and it is likely that prosecuti,ons will be based on those statutes. (i.e. srare that senocide, ;;;;;"*lilJ:1,ïïåi:,'ïilli?"iåï::ä.fi .However, it cannot be ruled out that in cases where statutory treaty) crimes are defined in thar Sratute.' , more restrictive than provided for in customary international law, or where custom th...'..f.r"n.", to-i,']t"l_ltäjä; tno, .international åä;"rtic Ìaw and ."q'þ-. defences provided for in English law, reliance may be placed ìaw nature of rhe crimes the provides not explicitly ," q*"0* *ìüi;"iy ìäo* ,r"tiorra l;$.ìz::: to draw inspirarion fiom .oo.t, . directly on customary international law.rg inrernational l"r, *fr"" ,'j qï! l.¡:r I national crimes ä.1, irr.,.ot riog int r- and should lead "."jã"¡îl , to a ú"Jy.îiäïrjffi .vrlrst!: 'l i""'""u"""ir"*1"""r¡".- trr.r. _igÌrt,a atã"Li"Jiå'.i"0,,'g to dif.,- Ï"f;ïi äï:::i*îîå"r t;ùdj. i 3. Sources of ICL Applied by International Tribunals It is possible that domestic.:Ì1O have th€ competence {i¡ $J:¡f'ìi) national yrll to prosecute inter- statutes o¡the yarious international criminal tribunals may or may not provide crimes eyen in the absence ofdomestu i"glri",iîp.".aing The In these cases, national jurisdiction. for the sources irom which those tribunals a¡e ìo draw the law to be applied by them. courts wilt appry, aire.tìy ,:, 9íi tl'l those aiä;;.ï;; ICCSI. contâins such a provision but the statutes of tlle ad hoc Tribunals do not. rures orinrernationar raw which The i,ír,,i,i,i-.å .åia".;:ä ::lirlü,:läïlï Since ICL is part of international law, international criminal tribunals will be called ii i' rn'o--on"ru-' -ì1{i :. ', iä*ä"iin*n These as provided ::;îi$ ::'å:1""åTyJ::i*î""t , upon to apply the sources of general international law. sources, for -. "**, r-i I ìii r,"*,*s.'*ãli ;iåî.*''#i,'iJi:ï:;"î:.Y,ï:.;..ffi-.1.,iå*n*# in Art.38(r) ofthe Statute ofthe International Court of]ustice (ICfSt.) are treaties, tion wirhour customary international law, general principles of law and, as a subsidiary means for the need for domestic leg*aír"". rrr. u"ìì"åîi"*iåIft"r, tary commissions o..a _t- the determining the law, judicial decisions and ti,vritings ofpublicists. These sources are to prosecute oerso"n, *'o ur. .r,-"'.gäi'ü'iiäì,ior,. 'rli: l :' of war." Prior to the or,¡. r"", repeated, though not in precisely the same way, in Art. 21 ICCSI. That provision, which Militarv Commissions o" .,ri .. vened bythe president. is headed Äpplicable Lalr/ provides that US on the basis ofth..o*_on"f ".åå*fr.îräîlr.ionr."r..on_ the laws ofwar hí,;Ll.ä.ï.ïr" uro,",,o", or though thesewere not defin* r. The Courtshall apply: miìitary orrälr"ä üíäå!"**.r.',r. o." of commissions after Wortd War IL".¿* (a) In the first place, this Statute, Êlements of Crimes and its Rules of P¡ocedure and military i" p-rï.ìi" c"*än and and other officiars for crirnes a*i"iåiJi;î Japanese Evidence; "g"t".. ä fac*hat the (b) In the second place, where applopriate, applicable treaties and the principles and rules of iûternational lavú including the est¿blished principles of the international law of I Humanrtyand wâr !;1;-a'""qtr ".t-".Againsr Crimes Act 2ooo.