PALGRAVE POLITICS OF IDENTITY & CITIZENSHIP SERIES CITIZENSHIP OF IDENTITY & POLITICS PALGRAVE Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies Civic and Political Participation in the West Mario Peucker Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series Th e politics of identity and citizenship has assumed increasing impor- tance as our polities have become signifi cantly more culturally, ethnically and religiously diverse. Diff erent types of scholars, including philoso- phers, sociologists, political scientists and historians make contributions to this fi eld and this series showcases a variety of innovative contributions to it. Focusing on a range of diff erent countries, and utilizing the insights of diff erent disciplines, the series helps to illuminate an increasingly con- troversial area of research and titles in it will be of interest to a number of audiences including scholars, students and other interested individuals. More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14670 Mario Peucker Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies Civic and Political Participation in the West Mario Peucker Victoria University Centre for Cultural Diversity and Wellbeing Melbourne , Australia Palgrave Politics of Identity and Citizenship Series ISBN 978-3-319-31402-0 ISBN 978-3-319-31403-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31403-7 Library of Congress Control Number: 2016946647 © Th e Editor(s) (if applicable) and Th e Author(s) 2016 Th is work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifi cally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfi lms or in any other physical way, and trans- mission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Th e use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifi c statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Th e publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. Cover illustration: © icollection / Alamy Stock Photo Printed on acid-free paper Th is Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature Th e registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland Acknowledgements Th is research study gave me the opportunity to meet 30 people—all self- declared Muslims—in Australia and Germany who willingly told me their life stories as committed citizens, sharing with me their personal experiences and beliefs, their passion, hopes and joys as well as their con- cerns, anger and frustration. I owe these people my deepest gratitude. Th is study would not have been possible without their contributions. I also feel humbled by the conversations with these 30 people, who are dedicated to ‘be good human beings’ for the benefi t of others. Th anks to these conversations, this study has become much more than an academic exercise, and I sincerely hope that my participants’ compassion and opti- mism will stay with me as a reminder of how one’s personal resilience and commitment to a peaceful diverse society can overcome ignorance and hostility, and eventually lead to recognition and appreciation of all people regardless of their background or religion. I also feel indebted to all those who off ered their invaluable support, encouragement and critical comments during this research. My thanks go in particular to Shahram Akbarzadeh, Helen Sullivan and Michael Herbert. And there is of course my family—Erika and my son Basti, who was born just months after the project started and who is now old enough to ask me all these questions about why Muslim women “don’t want oth- ers to see their hair”. My answer is: “You have to ask them, I’m sure they are happy to tell you.” v Contents 1 Introduction 1 2 What Is Active Citizenship? 9 3 Methodology: Exploring Muslims’ Civic and Political Participation 43 4 Muslims in Australia and Germany: Demographics, Resources, Citizenship 59 5 Th e Muslim Community and Political Context in Australia and Germany 115 6 Types and Trajectories of Muslims’ Activism 143 7 Goals, Motives and Driving Forces 201 8 Empowering and Discouraging Factors 237 9 Personal Implications of Civic Activism 267 10 Conclusion 287 Index 303 vii List of Figures Fig. 2.1 Two axis of civic engagement (Adapted from Adler and Goggin 2005) 22 Fig. 4.1 Top ten countries of birth of Muslims (2001, 2006 and 2011) 61 Fig. 4.2 Age profi le of Muslims and total population in Australia (2011) 61 Fig. 4.3 Highest educational attainment of Muslims and total population, Australia (2011) 67 Fig. 4.4 Educational attainment of Muslims in Germany 69 Fig. 4.5 Labour force status of Muslims by country/region of origin, Germany (2008) 73 Fig. 4.6 Non-electoral political participation: First/second generation migrants, Germany 97 Fig. 4.7 Unconventional participation of migrants in Germany 98 Fig. 4.8 Active participation of Muslims in selected organisational settings, Australia 101 Fig. 4.9 Th ematic context of organisation-based volunteering (people of Turkish origin) 104 Fig. 6.1 Illustration of three overlapping types of activity focus 169 Fig. 6.2 Initiation and recruitment of volunteering (Turkish background migrants) in Germany 188 Fig. 7.1 Overlapping types of civic goals as identifi ed in the interview data 202 ix List of Tables Table 2.1 Two-dimensional classifi cation: Basis for selection of interview partners 46 Table 2.2 Key characteristics of Australian sample 52 Table 2.3 Key characteristics of German sample 53 Table 4.1 Main countries and regions of origin of Muslims in Germany 63 Table 4.2 Secondary school degree by sex, 2013 71 Table 4.3 Selected occupational/tertiary education qualifi cations by sex, 2013 72 Table 4.4 Employment status and inactivity rate of selected groups in Germany, 2011 74 Table 4.5 Occupational status of selected groups in Germany, 2010 74 Table 4.6 Monthly household net income of selected groups in Germany, 2011 76 Table 4.7 Muslims’ involvement in informal political activities 93 xi 1 Introduction We are part of the community. We are not going to sit on the periphery. We are not non-Australians ! We are just as Australian as everyone else ! We have a faith that will enhance our citizenship , our participation as Australians. (Maha Abdo, Muslim community activist from Sydney) ‘Democracy depends on all of us: the price of liberty is not just eternal vigilance, but eternal activity’, said Abraham Lincoln. Th is is how British political theorist Sir Bernard Crick (2008: 18) underscored the vital importance of citi- zens’ active participation in liberal democratic societies. 1 While this view is widely shared by scholars and policymakers in the West, there is also a broad consensus about the general decline of cit- izens’ interest in politics and the ‘disinclination on the part of grow- ing sectors of the citizenry to become involved in political and civic life’ (Kivisto and Faist 2007 : 136). A seemingly increasing propor- tion of the population in Western societies are neither vigilant nor active in the political sphere, and their willingness to commit and contribute to their community and become actively engaged in the 1 Th e term citizen is used throughout this study, unless indicated otherwise, to refer to any member of society, and not in a legal sense to describe those who formally hold full citizenship rights. © Th e Author(s) 2016 1 M. Peucker, Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-31403-7_1 2 Muslim Citizenship in Liberal Democracies public space has been dwindling. Th e ‘bowling alone’ diagnosis of Robert Putnam (2000 ) illustratively captures this alleged civic passivity, which, as he claims, weakens collective solidarity and mutual trust, and aggra- vates processes of social isolation and fragmentation. Th is book on active citizenship of Muslims in Australia and Germany is situated within this broad thematic context. It takes as its starting point the tenet that citizens’ engagement in civil society and political life plays a key role in building and sustaining a vibrant, cohesive society (Forrest and Kearns 2001 ) and in maintaining the legitimacy of the democratic system (Hoskins and Mascherini 2009 ). If it is true, however, that the democratic project ‘depends on all of us’, as Sir Bernard Crick argues, why does this study then chose to explore active citizenship of one par- ticular group—Muslims? Do Muslims in Western countries diff er from others in the way they participate? Is there a certain Muslim quality to their citizenship, which requires specifi c analytical attention? Within the scholarly context of citizenship—by defi nition, an egalitar- ian space—singling out one group of citizens based on their faith needs legitimate reasons. Th is is particularly true when this group has a collec- tive history of being stigmatised as the ‘Other’, whose equal citizenship and loyalty to society have been called into doubt in many Western soci- eties, including Australia and Germany, the two countries under investi- gation in this study. Ironically, the main reason why this research explores Muslims’ civic and political participation is attributed to precisely these experiences of marginalisation: Why would someone who consistently faces external questioning of their loyalty and belonging invest time and eff ort to contribute to the very society that treats them as strangers, second- class citizens or even as a potential threat to society? Academic interest in how civically and politically active Muslims position themselves against this exclusionary discourse gives legiti- macy to the research focus on Muslims as a particular group of citi- zens.