The Department of International Environment and Development Studies, Noragric, is the international gateway for the Norwegian University of Life Sciences (NMBU). Eight departments, associated research institutions and the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine in Oslo. Established in 1986, Noragric’s contribution to international development lies in the interface between research, education (Bachelor, Master and PhD programmes) and assignments. The Noragric Master thesis are the final theses submitted by students in order to fulfil the requirements under the Noragric Master programme “International Environmental Studies”, “International Development Studies” and “International Relations”. The findings in this thesis do not necessarily reflect the views of Noragric. Extracts from this publication may only be reproduced after prior consultation with the author and on condition that the source is indicated. For rights of reproduction or translation contact Noragric. © Julia Paulsen, May 2016 [email protected] Noragric Department of International Environment and Development Studies P.O. Box 5003 N-1432 Ås Norway Tel.: +47 64 96 52 00 Fax: +47 64 96 52 01 Internet: http://www.nmbu.no/noragric i Declaration I, Julia Paulsen, declare that this thesis is a result of my research investigations and findings. Sources of information other than my own have been acknowledged and a reference list has been appended. This work has not been previously submitted to any other university for award of any type of academic degree. Signature……………………………….. Date…………………………………….. ii Abstract This thesis explores Australia’s immigration history and refugee policies. Focusing on one policy in particular, Operation Sovereign Borders (OSB), this study aims to understand the implementation of the policy and how it has influenced the relationship between Australia and Indonesia. In order to examine these bilateral relations, this study presents several events that have led Australia and Indonesia either to a stronger sense of cooperation or created tension. By comparing the OSB with other events, this study shows that OSB has had no significant influence on the bilateral relations. Data collection from this study has been completed through document analysis and interviews. Using the securitization theory, this thesis argues that the issue of asylum seekers in Australia has been successfully securitized by shifting the security agenda from societal to military. Meanwhile the relationship between Australia and Indonesia is analyzed through the concept of absolute and relative gains of the neo-neo debate in International Relations. Using the Prisoner’s Dilemma, this study argues that Indonesia is motivated by absolute gains, while Australia is motivated by relative gains. iii For asylum seekers and refugees iv Acknowledgment I have been fortunate to have Sarvendra Tharmalingam as my supervisor who have been very helpful, supportive and motivating in the whole process of writing this thesis. I benefitted greatly from Noragric library for acquiring books, especially with the help of the wonderful librarians Liv T. Ellingsen and Hilde K. Langsholt, and providing me a working space. In the long and difficult process of writing this master thesis, I received a great encouragement from my classmates Grenna Kaiya and Julina Canga. I am truly indebted to my parents and siblings for their trust and prayers. Finally, I wish to thank my husband, Didrik, as because of him I am always able to challenge myself to become a better person. v Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgment ............................................................................................................... v Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vi List of Tables and Figures ................................................................................................ viii List of Acronyms ............................................................................................................... ix 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1. Research questions ............................................................................................... 3 1.2. Conceptualization ................................................................................................. 3 1.3. Organization of study ........................................................................................... 5 2. Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 6 2.1. Securitization theory ............................................................................................ 6 2.2. Absolute gains and relative gains ......................................................................... 9 3. Methodology ............................................................................................................... 12 3.1. Research approach ............................................................................................... 12 3.2. Research questions ............................................................................................... 12 3.3. Research strategies and methods .......................................................................... 13 3.4. Data collection: interview and document analysis ............................................... 14 3.5. Challenges in data collection ............................................................................... 17 3.6.Research ethics ...................................................................................................... 18 4. Australia’s Immigration History .............................................................................. 20 4.1. The convicts and the free settlers ......................................................................... 20 4.2. The gold rush ....................................................................................................... 22 4.3. Assisted passage scheme ...................................................................................... 23 4.4. The White Australia policy .................................................................................. 24 4.5. Refugees in Australia ........................................................................................... 26 4.6. Visa as policy ....................................................................................................... 27 4.7. Government’s immigration agency ...................................................................... 29 4.8. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 30 vi 5. Refugee and Asylum Seeker Policies in Australia ................................................... 32 5.1. Humanitarian Program ......................................................................................... 33 5.2. Detention policy ................................................................................................... 36 5.3. The Pacific Solution (offshore detention and resettlement) ................................. 38 5.4. Operation Sovereign Borders (turning back boats) .............................................. 40 5.5. The policies’ controversial sides .......................................................................... 42 5.6.Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 44 6. Australia-Indonesia Bilateral Relations ................................................................... 46 6.1. The dynamics of bilateral relations ...................................................................... 47 6.2. Illegal immigrants, asylum seekers and refugee: the Indonesian perspective ..... 52 6.3. Cooperation in combating people smuggling and handling asylum seekers and refugees ................................................................................................................ 58 6.4. Indonesia’s reaction to Operation Sovereign Borders ......................................... 59 6.5. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 60 7. Analysis and Discussion ............................................................................................. 62 7.1. Securitization, desecuritization, and re-securitization of asylum seekers ............ 62 7.2. Operation Sovereign Borders: a successful securitization ................................... 65 7.3. Australia’s security agenda: From societal sector to military sector ................... 67 7.4. The influence of Operation Sovereign Borders to the Australia-Indonesia relationship ........................................................................................................... 68 7.5. Australia-Indonesia cooperation: a motive to achieve absolute and relative gains ........................................................................................................ 69 7.6. Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 70 8. Conclusion ..................................................................................................................