ARCHIWUM HISTORII I FILOZOFII MEDYCYNY 2018, 81, 92–99 IGOR ZIMIN1 ANDRZEJ GRZYBOWSKI Spectacles in Russia from Moscow Tsardom to Russian Empire. XVII – first half of the XIX Century. Okulary w Rosji. Od cesarstwa moskiewskiego XVII wieku do imperium moskiewskiego w I połowie XIX wieku 1 Pavlov First St. Petersburg Medical University 2Department of Ophthalmology, University of Warmia and Mazury, Olsztyn, Poland 3Institute for Research in Ophthalmology, Foundation for Ophthalmology Development, Poznan, Poland Abstract The history of ophthalmology, at least in its early This review article presents and discusses the available years, is often associated with the sight peculiarities of information on the early spectacles in Russia. The early top figures who received the most technologically ad- descriptions on ophthalmologists in Russia come from vanced medical care of the time. Ophthalmic artifacts the beginning of the 17th century, but the first Russian kept in museums and private collections also belonged oculist in Moscow was probably Fedor Dorofeev who to them. lived in the second half of this century. The Tsar Alexei “Sitting in my nest, looking at the rest”, the proverb Mikhailovich (1645-1676) used glasses in the last years says. Bound “by profession”, Russian tsars and emperors of his life. The article presents how different optical de- had no choice but to “see the rest”, which was guarante- vices were used by different noble people in Russia up ed by various sources of information. At the same time, to the early 20th century. visual acuity was also of great importance to them, the same as for any other person. Key words: History of Russian ophthalmology; history According to the preserved documents, professio- of ophthalmology; history of spectacles; nal ophthalmologists first appeared in the staff of the Pharmaceutical Prikaz (Aptekarskiy Prikaz – an offi- ce regulating medical issues) in early 17th century. The Pharmaceutical Prikaz was the office in charge of health care for Moscow elites. The service originated in the last years of the reign of Ivan IV (1533-1584) and was finally established in the early 17th century, after the Time of Troubles in the earlier part of that century. For example, in a staffing list of 1627 an eye doctor or, as they said, “eyeman”, was mentioned. We know the name of a non-Russian eye doctor, David Brun, who earned 97 rubles in 1632 for his services. [1] European physi- cans had been invited to Russia since Tsar Ivan IV. Year later, Johann Schwartling, who came from Hamburg in 1676 and trained Fedor Dorofeev in 1677, who is belie- IGOR ZIMIN, ANDRZEJ GRZYBOWSKI SPECTACLES IN RUSSIA FROM MOSCOW ... 93 ved to be the first Russian oculist in Moscow, became Catherine II, mentioned that she “read wearing glasses an eye doctor in the Parmacentical Pricaz. and, moreover, with a magnifying glass” [4]. Indeed, Speaking of Ophthalmology in the XVII century, it the Empress started to use reading glasses in the 1770s. should be borne in mind that this medical profession By that time, glasses had almost modern construction, was quite rare, so the inevitable staff rotation caused since London optician Edward Scarlett added temple difficulties. According to the documents of Pharmaceu- pieces to spectacles in the early XVIII century. Despite tical Prikaz, certain difficulties arose [2] when, in 1669, the apparent simplicity, it was a very important design they tried to hire a “good ophthalmologist”, 46-year-old improvement, as it allowed one to freely work with do- Swede, Yagan Erickson, under Tsar Alexei Milhailo- cuments. vich. As was customary at the time, ophthalmologists also treated “calculi diseases and all kinds of serious injuries, cancer, and other similar diseases, and they vi- sited many countries to study”. [2] The point is that the Ericson was not satisfied with the standard salary the Pharmaceutical Prikaz officials offered to him, and had not come to Moscow: “It was ordered to call an eye doctor to Moscow and to promise him the tsar’s mercy and the salary his colleagues do- ctors had”. Boris von Rosenberg asked a special salary for his protege, i.e. particularly high, but was offered the same money as others got. Johann von Rosenberg Co- ster (has lived in Moscow in years 1667-76) and his son Boris von Rosenberg (who lived in Moscow in years 1673-75) were doctors who originated from Lubeck. Doctors from Lubeck were not rare during the reign of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. His private doctor, Ivan An- dreev Kusteriusom, was born there and was trained in Konigsberg and for some time worked as the private physician of Swedish king Carl Gustav. Probably, the eye doctor Erickson found the salary too small; that is why we do not see his name among 11 doctors who came with Vilim Gorsten in May 1679” [2]. It is worth mentioning in the context of the topic Fig.1 Spectacles of Patriarch Nikon. Source: Exhibition catalog. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. M., 2005. p.165. №83. that glasses as an optical device appeared in late XIII Glasses with case. Russia. XVII. Silver, correcting glass; carving, gil- century. Russian monarchs were not long-livers but ding. Glass diameter 4.3 cm; points. Case 10 cm 2. 5.6 cm. Points in a they and their loved ones periodically had eye pro- silver frame, diopter lens. The frame is made of a silver strip attached blems. The historical medical literature mentions that, at the ends of the cable. in the last years of his life, the Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) used glasses. We can see some ophthal- The fact that Catherine II had ophthalmologic pro- mologic artifacts of the XVII century nowadays. For blems in 1770s is evidenced by the bill of December example, at the Exhibition “The Wise Two. The Tsar 24, 1770 [5], against which 1,219 rubles were paid to Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon” the silver- the court jeweler Lazarev for an “optic glass rimmed in -framed correcting glasses kept in the house treasury of gold and decorated with diamonds”. Apparently, it was Patriarch Nikon were displayed.[3] (Fig.1) By that time, a framed magnifying glass with luxury decorations. glasses were quite common for Europe. We can find in- The glasses of the Empress Catherine II that became formation on the vision condition of the top figures of a treasured antiquity during her lifetime, are kept in the Russian Empire both in memoirs and due to ma- the Moscow State Historical Museum (SHM). (Fig.2, terial artifacts – surviving lorgnettes and other vision Fig.3) Catherine II presented “her own” glasses in the aids. It should be highlighted that memoir writers rare- case to the Vice-Governor of St. Petersburg Novosiltsev ly mentioned such “trifles”, as glasses. Only those who in 1786. By that time spectacles were no longer a rarity, saw the royal persons in private could see them. One of but it was a thing of the great Empress, so the gift was the memoir writers, when describing the appearance of carefully stored. The eyeglass case was made of gold, 94 PRACE ORYGINALNE silver, sharkskin and velvet, and the glasses themselves ted in large letters to save my eyes, according to her”. In – of silver with glass lenses. According to the palace fact, the very possession of such a prayer-book in large legend, Novosiltsev came to the Empress with his re- letters by Elizabeth Petrovna is indirect evidence of her port early in the morning. Catherine II, who started the ophthalmic problems. morning with the review of official papers and letters, It is interesting that the order completely forbidding was sitting at the desk in her study. That was where she using vision aids during official court activities was es- kept her glasses, so that only close people authorized tablished in late XVIII century at the Russian imperial to enter her private apartments could see her wearing court. Of course, it was not an official ban, but rather a them. During the report, Novosiltsev could not refer to certain “past tradition”, which was sometimes stronger the prepared documents as, according to him, he had than written restrictions. Apparently, such a tradition “weak eyes”. It was then, when Catherine II presented developed at the turn of XVII-XIXth centuries during him her glasses. the reign of Paul I. The fact is that the short-sighted Empress Maria Feodorovna, who strictly observed the norms of the court etiquette, thought that glasses de- stroyed the traditional look of the Russian autocrat, therefore, she tried not to use glasses or even a lorgnet- te, at least not in public. The court nobility also had to observe the esta- blished dress code that banned the use of vision aids. Therefore, poor eyesight for the Russian emperors and their families became a problem, but was only during ceremonial events. Monocles, lorgnettes, and glasses were allowed in personal imperial rooms. The monocle, Fig.2 Spectacles and case belonging to Catherine II. Spectacles: si- as an optical device, was invented in the XIV century. lver, correcting glasses; correcting glass; green case: silver sharkskin; Originally it was a lens fixed on a long handle, which the other case: silver, velvet, engraving. Source: Exhibition catalog. was held over the text or in front of the eyes. In the Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and Patriarch Nikon. M., 2005. XVIth century, the monocle handle disappeared since it became common to wear a monocle fixing it by facial muscles. A lorgnette is a kind of vision aid, the design of which supposes the fixing of a pair of lenses in a fra- me attached to the handle. It was a popular aristocratic accessory in late XVIIIth – early XIXth century.