Isabella Hofmann 01263781 [email protected] [email protected] Exchange of art between Mughal India and the Dutch Empire in the 17th century. With a closer look on Rembrandt's drawings after Indian miniatures. Seminar / Bachelor Thesis I – 2019S Rembrandt and the Golden Age of Dutch Art (n.k.) Stephanie Dickey Table of contents 1. Introduction………………………..…………………………...…………………………..3 2. State of research…………………………………………………………………………….3 3. Historic background…………………………………………………………...…………...4 3.1. The Dutch East India Company – VOC…………………………………………….4 3.2 India in the 16th, 17th and 18th century……………………………………………….5 3.3. Trade relations between India and the VOC………………………………………..6 4. Mughal Art………………………………………………………………………………….7 4.1. European Art at the Mughal court………………………………………………….7 5. European encounters with Mughal art…………………………………………………..10 6. Rembrandt……………………………………………………………………...…………11 6.1 Rembrandt’s art chamber………………………………………………………….11 6.2. Rembrandt’s drawings after Indian miniatures…………………………………...12 6.2.1. How did Rembrandt gain access to the original Mughal miniatures?......12 6.2.2. The drawings…………………………..………………………………..16 6.3.3. The purpose………………………………………………… ………….20 7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………21 APPENDIX Bibliography………………………………………………………….……………………….23 Illustration Credits ………………………………………………...………………………….25 Plates…..……………………………………………………………………………………...27 2 1. Introduction When we think about art the first thing we do is to divide it into different scholars or in its countries of origin for example Italian, Asian, Indian, Japanese, Flemish or Dutch art. But with the beginning of the globalization, which started with the first big explorations we also have to look at art in a global context. Not only material goods, such as fabrics, gold or spices travelled around the globe, but also art, culture and traditions were exchanged. And it were not only the Europeans who were fascinated with south-east Asian cultures, the interest on the other side was big as well. In this essay I explore the relationship between Mughal India and the Dutch Empire. First I give a brief insight into the historical conditions and write about the history of the Dutch East India Company (VOC), as well about the emergence of the Mughal Empire and its trade relations with the VOC. Afterwards I will discuss the origin of Mughal painting and show some examples of how Mughal artists used and remodelled European, primarily Dutch art. The second part deals with the influences of Mughal art on European art. I focus mainly on Rembrandt's drawings after Indian miniatures. I attempt to find possible answers to the questions "How did Rembrandt gain access to the miniatures?", "What happened to the miniatures afterwards?" and "What were his motivations to copy the miniatures? 2. State of research The German art historian Friedrich Sarre was one of the first to study Rembrandt's drawings after Indian miniatures in 1904.1 Since then, a lot has been achieved in this field of research which deals with the interconnection of Indian and European art. In her book "Im Reich der 1 Friedrich Sarre, Rembrandts Zeichnungen nach indisch-islamischen Miniaturen, in: Staatliche Museen zu Berlin – Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Ed.), Jahrbuch der Königlich Preussischen Kunstsammlungen, 25. Bd., 3.H, p. 143 – 185, Berlin 1904. 3 Großmogulen" Annemarie Schimmel writes about history, religion and art and deals with European influences on the art of the Mughal Empire.2 A very detailed dissertation from 2009 by Corinna Forberg is entitled "Die Rezeption indischer Miniaturen in der europäischen Kunst des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts".3 She covers works of Rembrandt and Schellinks after Mughal paintings. The most recent publication on this topic was published as a part of the exhibition "Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India", which took place in 2018 at ‘The J.Paul Getty Museum’. In this exhibition for the first time all known 23 drawings of Rembrandt after Indian miniatures were exhibited together and compared with original Mughal paintings. Additionally, European influences on Indian art were examined.4 For the Indian miniatures in the "Million Room" at Schönbrunn Palace, it is recommended to read Dorothea Duda's essay entitled "Die Kaiserin und der Großmogul. Untersuchungen zu den Miniaturen des Millionenzimmers im Schloss Schönbrunn" from 1997.5 3. Historic background 3.1. The Dutch East India Company - VOC The prerequisite for Rembrandt’s access to the Indian miniatures was the establishment of the Dutch East India Company (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) 6 which made Amsterdam a world trade metropolis and the broad religious acceptance7 helped the city to a cultural flowering.8 2 Annemarie Schimmel, Im Reich der Großmoguln. Geschichte, Kunst, Kultur, München 2000. 3 Corina Forberg, Die Rezeption indischer Miniaturen in der europäischen Kunst des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts, Band 1, Wien 2009. 4 Stephanie Schrader (Ed.), Rembrandt and the Inspiration of India, Los Angeles 2018. 5 Dorothea Duda, Die Kaiserin und der Großmogul. Untersuchungen zu den Miniaturen des Millionenzimmers im Schloß Schönbrunn, in: Karin K. Troschke (Ed.), Malerei auf Papier und Pergament in den Prunkräumen des Schlosses Schönbrunn, p. 33 – 55, Wien 1997. 6 Forberg 2009, p. 10. 7 Persecuted by the Inquisition in Spain, France and Portugal fled to the Netherlands, among them scholars and artists. Forberg 2009, p. 11. 8 Forberg 2009, p. 11. 4 The VOC was established on March 20th, 1602 as a union of various Dutch merchants to trade with India and other South East Asian countries.9 The main reason for the association was to get rid of the rivalry between single companies. Between 1559 and 1601 fifteen different companies set out for South East Asia, bringing home ship loads of spices which led to an enormous price fell on the market.10 The solution was a trade monopoly supported by the Dutch state. Between the years 1600 and 1795 4.720 ships where sent to Asia by the VOC, which made them the largest shipping company in the world.11 From 1641 on the Dutch traders where the only Europeans allowed to trade with Japan, but they were restricted to a small island called Deshima in the harbour of Nagasaki. This also led to the great profit of the VOC.12 3.2 India in the 16th, 17th and 18th century In the 16th century an Indo-Muslim empire arose in the north of the Indian subcontinent. Until the end of the 17th century it expanded south into the Vijayanagar empire13, occupying almost the whole continent. The term “Mughal Empire” was made up by the Europeans as they thought the rulers were Mongols. The emperors referred to themselves as “Gurkani”. Patriarch of this dynasty was Timur (1336 – 1405)14, but founder of the empire was Babur who died in 1530. The 16th and 17th century was the golden age for the Mughal Empire. Under the four emperors Akbar (reign 1556 – 1605), Jahangir (r. 1605 – 1627), Shah Jahan (r. 1627 – 1658) and Awrangzeb (r. 1658 – 1707) economy, art and culture were flourishing. In the 18th century various political opponents, such as the British or the Rajputs gained dominance which led to a collapse of the administration and caused a fragmentation of the empire into smaller districts 9 Gaastra 2003, p. 20. 10 Gaastra 2003, p. 19. 11 Bruijn/Gaastra/ 1993, p. 182. In Comparison the East India Company by the British sent only 2.676 ships to Asia during the same time period. 12 Gaastra 2003, p. 53. 13 Gaastra 2003, p.50. 14 Forberg 2009, p. 5. 5 who were fighting for supremacy. With help of the British East India Company the British could finally prevail their dominance and in 1876 Queen Victoria was named “Empress of India”.15 3.3. Trade relations between India and the VOC Even though the VOC had the supremacy on the spice trade in the Indonesian Archipelago it was also important to gain access to the Indian market, as Indian textiles were indispensable as barter goods for the purchase of spices16 in Indonesia. The Portuguese concentrated their power on the west coast in Goa, therefore in 1605 the Dutch merchant Van der Haghen sent a ship to the Coromandel coast on the east side where the Portuguese were less powerful. They soon gained permission by the local authorities17 to establish factories and beneficial trading agreements were made. Only five years later they were already able to set up independent managements with offices in Masulipatnam in the north and Plaeacatte in the south.18 The start of the trade relations with the Mughal Empire in Surat was less fortunate. Gaastra writes that the first Dutch Merchants, Hans de Wolf and Lafer, who visited Surat in 1602, were intercepted by Portuguese as they left town and executed. David van Deynsen another Dutch trader was so persecuted that he found no other way out than committing suicide.19 Anyway the VOC managed to establish a flourishing post in Surat after 1616 through the endeavours of Pieter van den Broecke. Femme S. Gaastra is questioning himself why the Indian governments allowed the VOC and other trading companies such easy access to the market and even gave them trading privileges such as lowering of import and export duties. His answer is that their centres of power were inland, so they had little interests to protect the merchants in 15 Conermann 2006, p. 7 – 8. For detailed information read: Stephan Conermann, Das Mogulreich. Geschichte und Kultur des muslimischen Indien. München 2006. 16 Gaastra 2003, p. 50. 17 In the north there was the kingdom of Golconda and in the south a number of areas under the control of the Vijayanagar empire. Gaastra 2003, p. 50. 18 Gaastra 2003, p. 50. 19 Gaastra 2003, p. 50. 6 the coastal towns and they were hoping for a political and financial advantage in encouraging foreign traders. 20 4. Mughal Art “There are many who hate painting, but I don't like people like that.