Multiple-Use Zoning and Tourism in Marine Protected Areas: A Case Study of Mu Koh Chang National Marine Park, Thailand George S.J. Roman B.Sc. (Hons.), University of British Columbia, 2001 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in the Department of Geography, * University of Victoria O George S.J. Roman, 2004 University of Victoria All rights resewed. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. ABSTRACT Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) can function to meet conservation, tourism, and fisheries objectives. However, effective MPA planning and management is often constrained by limited institutional capacity, a lack of data, and a lack of knowledge integration. If MPAs are to be useful tools for marine resource management, integrated management plans based on applied research must be designed and documented. The goal of this study was to reduce conflicts between tourism and conservation at the Mu Koh Chang National Marine Park, Thailand, by drafting a multiple-use zoning plan. Two studies were conducted to provide the basis for the draft zoning plan. The first study, a coral reef field survey, assessed differences among sites for four criteria: trampling vulnerability, coral life form diversity, coral reef sizes, and suitability for restoring degraded branching Acropora spp. corals (which are threatened throughout much of their range and provide important habitat for many species). The second study administered a survey in four languages to 275 respondents taking part in organized snorkelling tours, and assessed visitor satisfaction, differences in perceptions between subgroups of people, and "Limits of Acceptable Change" (LAC) for social and biophysical indicators of high-quality snorkelling experiences. Six key management recommendations were derived from the coral reef field study and the visitor survey. First of all, a Conservation Zone with tourism and fisheries strictly prohibited should be designated at a site with high vulnerability to trampling, high coral life form diversity, the largest coral reef size, and suitable areas for restoring Acropora spp.. Second, a Restoration Zone, with tourism and fisheries strictly prohibited, should be designated at a heavily degraded site with large amounts of dead Acropora spp.. Third, Tourism Zones should be established and promoted for intensive snorkelling at two sites deep enough to prevent snorkellers from trampling corals, yet shallow enough to permit people floating on the surface to view coral reefs. Fourth, all other snorkelling and diving sites should be designated as Ecotourism Zones managed for more peaceful settings, characterized by fewer people (LAC: 30 people max.), fewer boats (LAC: two boats max.), and smaller boats. Ecotourism Zones are likely to be particularly important for satisfying European and North American tourists, who were shown to be more sensitive to crowding than most Thai visitors. Fifth, the following LAC standards for coral conditions should be applied within both Ecotourism and Tourism Zones: (i) proportion of dead corals<40%, (ii) patches of dead corals<25 m2. Finally, 'no-take' zones should be enforced with both Ecotourism Zones and Tourism Zones, in order to contribute towards conservation and restoration objectives, reduce visitor exposure to fishing gear, enhance visitor safety, enhance fish community aesthetics, and improve satisfaction among visitors with a lot of previous experience snorkelling. This draft zoning plan should be combined with visitor education and nature interpretation programs, fisheries considerations, and improved management of coastal tourism development and aquaculture. Extensive public review is also required, and co-management and adaptive management approaches should be taken during plan implementation. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS vi LIST OF FIGURES ix LIST OF TABLES x LIST OF APPENDICES xi LIST OF ACRONYMS xii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1. CORAL REEFS, MARINE PROTECTED AREAS, AND TOURISM 1 1.2. CASE STUDIES: MPA ZONING AND TOURISM 4 1.2.1. GREAT BARRIER REEF MARINE PARK, AUSTRALIA 4 1.2.2. BUNAKEN NATIONAL MARINE PARK, INDONESIA 6 1.2.3. MAPUTALAND 1 ST.LUCIA MARINE RESERVES, SOUTH AFRICA-7 1.3. MU KOH CHANG NATIONAL MARINE PARK, THAILAND 8 1.4. PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY AND THESIS OUTLINE 18 CHAPTER 2: ZONING CORAL REEFS FOR CONSERVATION 19 2.1 : LITERATURE REVIEW 19 2.1.1. IMPACTS OF PHYSICAL TRAMPLING ON CORAL REEFS 19 2.1.2. CORAL REEF DEGRADATION AND TOURIST TRAMPLING: SCAPEGOAT OR IMPORTANT IMPACT? 2 1 2.1.3 : MANAGING TRAMPLING IMPACTS ON CORAL REEFS 23 2.1.4. ZONING CORAL REEFS FOR CONSERVATION: ECOLOGICAL CRITERIA 25 2.1.4.1. TRAMPLING VULNERABILITY 25 2.1.4.2. DIVERSITY 26 2.1.4.3. CORAL REEF AREA 27 2.1.4.4. HABITAT SUITABILITY FOR A CROPORA SPP. 27 2.1.4.5. MULTIPLE CRITERIA ANALYSIS 3 0 2.2. METHODS 31 2.2.1. GENERAL SITE SURVEYS 3 1 2.2.2. THE LINE INTERCEPT TRANSECT (LIT) TECHNIQUE 3 1 2.2.3. DATA COLLECTION AT KOH CHANG 32 2.2.4. DATA PROCESSING AND DATA ANALYSIS 35 2.2.5. MULTIPLE CRITERIA ANALYSIS 3 6 2.3. RESULTS 37 2.3.1. GENERAL DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS 37 2.3.2. RESULTS: TRAMPLING VULNERABILITY 40 2.3.3. RESULTS: CORAL MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSITY 4 1 2.3.4. RESULTS: CORAL REEF AREA 43 2.3.5. RESULTS: SUITABILITY FOR RESTORATION OF ACROPORA SPP.44 2.3.6. RESULTS: MULTI-CRITERIA ANALYSIS 46 2.4. DISCUSSION 47 2.4.1. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSERVATION ZONES 47 2.4.3. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR RESTORATION 47 2.4.4. BENEFITS OF THE CORAL REEF FIELD SURVEY 49 2.4.5. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 49 2.5. CONCLUSIONS 52 vii CHAPTER 3: ZONING CORAL REEFS TO MANAGE VISITOR EXPERIENCES 53 3.1. LITERATURE REVIEW 53 3.1.1. VISITOR SATISFACTION IN MARINE PROTECTED AREAS 53 3.1.1.1. BIOPHYSICAL SETTING PREFERENCES 54 3.1.1.2. SOCIAL SETTING PREFERENCES 5 5 3.1.1.3. MANAGERIAL SETTING PREFERENCES 5 6 3.1.2. VISITOR DIVERSITY: IMPLICATIONS FOR MPA PLANNING 57 3.1.3. MPA ZONING AND VISITOR MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORKS 58 3.1.3.1 : MARINE RESOURCE OPPORTUNITY SPECTRUM (MROS)59 3.1.3 -2:LIMITS OF ACCEPTABLE CHANGE (LAC) 6 1 3.2: METHODS 64 3.2.1. QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGN 64 3.2.2. SAMPLING DESIGN 65 3.2.3. DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS 6 8 3.3. RESULTS 70 3.3.1. DESCRIPTIVE RESULTS 70 3.3.2. MULTIVARIATE TEST FOR 'OVERALL SATISFACTION' 77 3.3.3. EFFECT OF EXPERIENCE LEVEL 77 3.3.4. EFFECT OF SITE LOCATION 80 3.3.5. CORALS: VISITOR PERCEPTIONS VS. MEASURED CONDITIONS 82 3.3.6. CROWDING: VISITOR PERCEPTIONS VS. MEASURED CONDITIONS-85 3.3.7. EFFECT OF NATIONALITYICULTURE 8 7 3.4. DISCUSSION 89 3.4.1. VISITOR SATISFACTION, THE "TOURIST AREA CYCLE OF EVOLUTION", AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MPA PLANNING 89 3.4.2. ENHANCING VISITOR SATISFACTION 90 3.4.3. CORAL CONDITIONS: LAC STANDARDS AND MPA ZONING 91 3.4.4. CROWDING: LAC STANDARDS AND MPA ZONING 93 3.4.5. MROS, LAC, AND IMPLICATIONS FOR MPA PLANNING AND ZONING AT KOH CHANG 94 3.5.6. ADDITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS 96 3.5.6.1. FISH COMMUNITIES 96 3.5.6.2. BEACHES AND UNINHABITED ISLANDS 97 3.5.6.3. ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS: POTENTIAL AND PITFALLS98 3.5.6.4. EQUITY IN THE ECONOMIC BENEFITS OF MPA TOURISM?-99 3.5.7. BENEFITS OF THE VISITOR SURVEY 99 3.5.8. LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 99 3.5. CONCLUSIONS 101 . Vlll CHAPTER 4: SYNTHESIS & CONCLUSIONS 103 4.1. A DRAFT MULTIPLE-USE CORAL REEF ZONING PLAN FOR THE MU KOHCHANG NATIONAL MARINE PARK, THAILAND 103 4.1.1. ZONING TO ACHIEVE CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES 103 4.1.2. ZONING TO ACHIEVE TOURISM OBJECTIVES 108 4.2. NATURE INTERPRETATION AND VISITOR EDUCATION 110 4.3. CONTRIBUTIONS AND LIMITATIONS OF THIS STUDY 112 4.3.1. CONTRIBUTIONS 112 4.3.2. LIMITATIONS 115 4.4. SUGGESTED AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH AND PLANNING 116 4.4.1. FISHERIES MANAGEMENT 116 4.4.2. LAND-BASED THREATS 118 4.4.3. PUBLIC REVIEW OF PLANS 119 4.4.4. CO-MANAGEMENT 120 4.5. CONCLUSIONS 121 5.0. REFERENCES 123 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Maputaland MPA: Coral Reef Habitat Mapping and Zoning 7 Figure 1.2 Map of Mu Koh Chang National Marine Park 9 Figure 1.3 Map of hard coral genera diversity in Southeast Asia 10 Figure 1.4 OCESD Zoning Plan for Tourism Development at Koh Chang 17 Figure 2.1 Vulnerability of different coral morphologies to trampling 2 1 Figure 2.2 A model for managing trampling impacts on coral reefs 25 Figure 2.3 Dead Acropora spp. at Koh Chang 29 Figure 2.4 Relationship between ecological criteria, protection priorities, and MPA zoning 30 Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a transect 32 Figure 2.6 Composition of benthic communities at each reef 38 Figure 2.7 Mean proportional cover of hard corals at each reef 4 1 Figure 2.8 Mean coral morphological diversity (mH7)at each reef 42 Figure 2.9 Mean coral morphological diversity (rnH7)within each region 43 Figure 2.10 Mean proportional cover of dead branching Acropora spp. at each reef 45 Figure 3.1 The Limits of Acceptable Change (LAC) planning system 62 Figure 3.2 Action Grid : Importance (Ql) vs. Satisfaction (Q2) 75 Figure 4.1 Mangroves destroyed by road construction near Khlong Phrao 119 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 New draft zoning plan, Great Barrier Reef Marine Park 5 Table 1.2 Thailand's National Coral Reef Strategy: zoning policy 15 Table 2.1 Natural vs.