A Vision of the Skald Seeking the Ideal in the Probable Works of Snorri Sturluson Eirik Westcoat Master of Philosophy Thesis Viking and Medieval Norse Studies Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Faculty of Icelandic and Comparative Cultural Studies HÁSKÓLI ÍSLANDS Spring 2016 A Vision of the Skald Seeking the Ideal in the Probable Works of Snorri Sturluson Eirik Westcoat Master of Philosophy Thesis in Viking and Medieval Norse Studies Supervisor: Karl G. Johansson, Universitetet i Oslo Department of Linguistics and Scandinavian Studies UNIVERSITETET I OSLO Faculty of Icelandic and Comparative Cultural Studies HÁSKÓLI ÍSLANDS Spring 2016 © Eirik Westcoat 2016 A Vision of the Skald: Seeking the Ideal in the Probable Works of Snorri Sturluson Eirik Westcoat http://www.duo.uio.no/ Printer: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo !ii Table of Contents Summary ...................................................................................................................................v Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................vi Foreword ...............................................................................................................................viii Chapter 1: Introduction .............................................................................................................1 1.1 Purpose, Scope, and Rationale ..................................................................................1 1.2 Contemporaneousness of the Original Compositions ...............................................2 1.3 The Audiences, Focuses, and Diversity of the Works Considered ............................3 1.4 On Snorri’s Authorship of the Three Works ..............................................................4 1.5 Manuscripts and Choice of Texts ..............................................................................6 1.6 Treatment of the Texts ...............................................................................................9 1.7 On my Approach to Mythology ...............................................................................11 1.8 Other Analytical Tools .............................................................................................12 Chapter 2: Snorra Edda ..........................................................................................................15 2.1 Opening Remarks ....................................................................................................15 2.2 Remarks on the Use of Verse in Edda .....................................................................16 2.3 Prologue and Euhemerization .................................................................................19 2.4 Óðinn: The Skald’s Highest God ............................................................................20 2.5 Bragi of the Æsir: Divine Role Model ....................................................................22 2.6 Bragi inn gamli Boddason: Orienting and Defining the Skald ...............................25 2.7 Other Notes on Skalds and Poetry ...........................................................................27 2.8 Analysis of the Mead Myth .....................................................................................31 Chapter 3: Heimskringla .........................................................................................................38 3.1 Opening Remarks ....................................................................................................38 3.2 The Heimskringla Prologue ....................................................................................38 3.3 Skalds as Eyewitnesses and Icelanders ...................................................................39 3.4 Remarks on the Use of Verse in Heimskringla .......................................................41 3.5 Ynglinga saga, Óðinn, and Mythical History ..........................................................43 3.6 Óðinn and Odinic Figures after Ynglinga saga .......................................................47 3.7 The Power of Poetic Speech ....................................................................................48 3.8 Þjóðólfr ór Hvini: Good Advice and Interceding with a King ................................50 !iii 3.9 Guthormr sindri: Peacemaking ................................................................................51 3.10 Eyvindr skáldaspillir Finnsson: A Major Skald .....................................................52 3.11 Hallfrøðr vandræðaskáld Óttarsson: Entering a King’s Service ...........................55 3.12 Sigvatr skáld Þórðarson: The Central Skald .........................................................57 3.13 Þormóðr Kolbrúnarskáld Bersason: Skalds at the Battle of Stiklastaðir ...............63 3.14 Skalds with Special Importance as Icelanders ......................................................66 3.15 The Standards for Skaldic Poetry ..........................................................................68 3.16 Notable Skaldic Absences: Snorri’s Lost Opportunities .......................................70 Chapter 4: Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar ..............................................................................71 4.1 Opening Remarks ....................................................................................................71 4.2 Remarks on the Use of Verse in Egils saga ............................................................71 4.3 Ǫlvir hnúfa Berðlu-Kárason: The Saga before Egill ...............................................72 4.4 Egill Skalla-Grímsson: Childhood ..........................................................................75 4.5 Egill Skalla-Grímsson: Adventures Abroad ............................................................78 4.6 Egill Skalla-Grímsson: Hǫfuðlausn ........................................................................82 4.7 Egill Skalla-Grímsson: Settling Down in Iceland ...................................................85 4.8 Einarr skálaglamm Helgason: Skaldic Peer Relations ............................................88 4.9 Final Skaldic Notes on the Saga ..............................................................................89 Chapter 5: Conclusions ...........................................................................................................91 5.1 The Vision of the Skald ...........................................................................................91 5.2 The Contribution to the Authorship Case ................................................................95 5.3 Future Directions .....................................................................................................97 Afterword ................................................................................................................................99 Bibliography .........................................................................................................................100 Primary Literature .......................................................................................................100 Secondary Literature ...................................................................................................102 Index .....................................................................................................................................107 !iv Summary It is well known that Snorra Edda seeks to preserve and promote skaldic verse, heavily focusing on what is required to compose and understand such verse. Kevin Wanner, in his book Snorri Sturluson and the Edda, has argued that Snorri wrote Edda with an eye to preserving the relevancy of such verse to Norwegian court life and its ability to gain rewards from kings and chieftains, and thus also promoting a demand for the skilled craftsmen who produced it: skalds. Promoting such a figure necessarily requires that Snorri had some ideal in mind to communicate. Furthermore, it may be reasonably expected that such a project would not be limited to Edda, but would also be manifested in his other works. Therefore, this study seeks to reveal the vision of the skald that may be underlying the three works which are most often attributed to Snorri Sturluson with varying degrees of confidence: Edda, Heimskringla, and Egils saga Skalla-Grímssonar. As these works are diverse in style, content, and audience, I seek as comprehensive a picture as possible. This includes the skald’s role, how he views his craft, and much more — nearly everything revealed about the skald in these works except the rules of versification. Looking at whether and how the works may promote a demand for skalds and a desire to be a skald is a major tool in my analysis. A close reading of the skald-related mythology in Edda also figures prominently. I find that a vision of the skald may indeed be derived from these works. It is a multi-faceted vision that orients the skald with respect to the gods, the past, myth, poetry itself, training, duties, relations to others, and more. It is one that indeed promotes a demand for skalds and a desire to be a skald, and it makes an affirmative contribution to the case for Snorri’s authorship. !v Acknowledgements This master’s thesis is a product of my long-standing interest in skalds and poetry. Its immediate roots are found in my conference presentation about the Poetic Mead that predates the start of my master’s studies.* From