FACILITATING TRADE ON THE FLORIDA FRONTIER: AN HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF FORT SAN MARCOS DE APALACHE, 1639-1821 by Ericha Elizabeth Sappington B.A., Boise State University, 2008 A thesis submitted to the Department of Anthropology College of Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities The University of West Florida In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts 2018 The thesis of Ericha Elizabeth Sappington is approved: ____________________________________________ _________________ Ramie A. Gougeon, Pd.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ Erin Stone, Ph.D., Committee Member Date ____________________________________________ _________________ John E. Worth, Ph.D., Committee Chair Date Accepted for the Department/Division: ____________________________________________ _________________ John R. Bratten, Ph.D., Chair Date Accepted for the University: ____________________________________________ _________________ Jaromy Kuhl, Ph.D. Interim Dean, Graduate School Date ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Dr. John Worth, Dr. Ramie Gougeon, and Dr. Erin Stone for their insight and patience in the thesis writing process and for their continuous support of the ongoing project. I would also like to thank Mark Boyd, Lucy Wenhold, and Doris Olds for their lifelong dedication to the study of a remote Spanish outpost in the borderlands of La Florida . Special thanks to Marie Prentice and Vincent “Chip” Birdsong for their invaluable assistance in the research process. I would also like to thank Caroline D. Carley, Robert L. Sappington, and Taylor McKenzie for their support and encouragement throughout the thesis writing process. Last but not least, I would also like to thank the long forgotten soldiers and residents of San Marcos de Apalache, without whom this project would not have been possible. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................. iii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................ vi ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. vii CHAPTER I. OVERVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................. 1 A. Theoretical Framework .............................................................1 B. The Borderlands and Frontiers of Spanish Florida ...................3 C. Colonialism in the Spanish Southeast .......................................4 D. Fort San Marcos de Apalache ...................................................7 CHAPTER II. METHODOLOGY .................................................................................. 11 A. Introduction .............................................................................11 B. Documentary Research Methods ............................................11 C. Archaeological Research Methods .........................................13 CHAPTER III. HISTORICAL CONTEXT ...................................................................... 15 A. The Development of Spanish Florida .....................................15 B. The Port of San Marcos : A Frontier Outpost in the Periphery .................................................................................17 C. The First Spanish Occupation of Fort San Marcos de Apalache (1677-1704) ............................................................................. 20 D. The Second Spanish Occupation of Fort San Marcos de Apalache (1718-1764) ............................................................23 E. The British Occupation of Fort San Marcos de Apalache (1764-1769)..............................................................................28 F. The Third Spanish Occupation of Fort San Marcos de Apalache (1787-1821) ............................................................29 G. American Occupation of Fort San Marcos de Apalache (1818- 1821) ........................................................................................38 H. The Abandonment and Dismantling of Fort St. Marks............39 I. Confederate Occupation: Fort Ward .......................................41 J. Post-Civil War Era ..................................................................41 CHAPTER IV. ARCHAEOLOGY ................................................................................... 44 A. Introduction .............................................................................44 B. Dorris L. Olds, 1962 ...............................................................46 C. Hale G. Smith and John P. Marwitt, 1963 ..............................48 D. 1966 Excavation ......................................................................49 E. James S. Dunbar and Steve J. Dasovich, 1991 .......................51 CHAPTER V. ANALYSIS .............................................................................................. 53 A. Introduction .............................................................................53 iv B. Archaeological Data ................................................................54 C. Imported Ceramics ..................................................................56 D. Native American Ceramics .....................................................65 E. Ceramic Types Present in Overall Analysis ...........................69 F. Ethnic Groups and Movement of Their Ceramic Traditions and Types ................................................................................73 G. Comparative Sites in Colonial Spanish Florida ......................86 H. Ceramics ................................................................................ 88 I. Non-Ceramic Materials ...........................................................90 J. Discussion ...............................................................................98 CHAPTER VI. DISCUSSION AND INTERPRETATIONS ......................................... 112 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................... 118 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 129 A. Location, Description, and Total Artifact Counts for Material Categories from the St. Marks and Wakulla River Areas, Southeast Sector, Smith 1963 .....................................130 B. Description and Dimensions of Trenches Excavated, Anonymous 1966 ..................................................................135 C. Location, Description, and Total Count for Material Categories from the Northwest Sector, Anonymous 1966 .....................138 D. Test Hole Numbers, Depths, Materials Recovered, and Counts from the Northwest Sector, Dunbar and Dasovich 1991 ......143 E. General Materials Present at Fort San Marcos de Apalache and at Select Comparative Colonial Sites in Florida ...................151 F. Imported Ceramic Types in the Fort San Marcos de Apalache Assemblage and at Comparative Colonial Sites in Spanish Florida ...................................................................................168 G. Artifact Types Present by Site Occupation Area ..................172 H. Historic Native American Ceramics at Fort San Marcos de Apalache : Presence or Absence for the Southeast (1639-1787) and Northwest (1731-1821) Sectors .................................... 178 I. Native American Ceramic Types Present at Fort San Marcos de Apalache and at Comparative Colonial Spanish Sites in Florida ................................................................................... 182 J. Artifact Types Present by Occupation Period of Fort San Marcos de Apalache ............................................................ 185 v LIST OF TABLES 1. Artifact Distribution for Surface Collection and Excavation Units by Level, Dorris Olds, 1962 ......................................................................................................................... 46 2. Overall Material Categories and Counts, Dorris Olds, 1962 ............................................ 46 3. Artifact Categories and Counts, Hale G. Smith, 1963 ..................................................... 48 4. Artifact Categories and Counts from the Northwest Sector, Anonymous Author, 1966 .................................................................................................................... 49 5. Artifact Categories and Counts Collected from the Northwest Sector, James S. Dunbar and Steve J. Dasovich, 1991 ........................................................................................... 50 6. Imported Ceramics in the Fort San Marcos de Apalache Assemblage by Country of Origin, After Kathleen Deagan ........................................................................................ 57 7. Imported Ceramics in the Fort San Marcos de Apalache Assemblage by Type, After Judy Bense ....................................................................................................................... 57 8. General Imported Ceramic Percentages by Tradition Present at Fort San Marcos de Apalache and at Select Colonial Sites in Spanish Florida ............................................... 59 9. Imported and Historic Native Ceramics in the Fort San Marcos de Apalache Assemblage ......................................................................................................................