University of Bradford eThesis This thesis is hosted in Bradford Scholars – The University of Bradford Open Access repository. Visit the repository for full metadata or to contact the repository team © University of Bradford. This work is licenced for reuse under a Creative Commons Licence. GOVERNANCE, POVERTY AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT I.A.O. BAKARE Ph.D UNIVERSITY OF BRADFORD 2012 GOVERNANCE, POVERTY AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT A CASE STUDY OF THE NIGER DELTA Ibrahim Adeolu Owolabi BAKARE B.sc (Hons) Econ, M.sc.Bus.Adm (Mkt), M.sc (Econ), M.Sc Env.Res.Mgt, M.A.Inter’Relations & Strategic Std., PG.Cert. (Res. Methods), PGD (Res. Methods), FNIM, MCMI, ACMA. Submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) Department Development and Economic Studies University of Bradford 2012 ABSTRACT GOVERNANCE, POVERTY AND NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT A Case Study of the Niger Delta Ibrahim Adeolu Owolabi BAKARE Keywords: Access, Agency, Conflict, Institutions, Livelihood, Participation, Power, Resources This study employs ethnographic research to investigate the extent to which local governance affects both poverty and natural resources management in the Delta region. The research develops a framework for governance of natural resources to understand the daily practices of different actors within the local context using informal observation and interviews. In applying the framework, the study places emphasis on resources for governance, actors’ agency, arrangements of access to resources and governance outcomes in the Delta region. Evidence from the study shows that while the state and corporate actors only contextualise resources in terms of economic value, local actors interprete resources beyond economic value to incorporate symbolic and socio-culturally constructed values linked with historic values. The study also identified relational, routine practices and structural factors which differently shape actors’ agency for resources management. The context which shapes different arrangements of access to local resources by actors varies. These arrangements are subject to negotiation, power differences and socio-cultural factors. The findings related to governance outcomes reveal both positive (favourable) and negative (unfavourable) outcomes for the livelihood of different actors. The study concludes by exploring implications for local governance in order to address poverty and enhance optimal resource management in the Delta region. i Table of Contents ABSTRACT I TABLE OF CONTENTS II LIST OF TABLES IX LIST OF FIGURES X LIST OF BOXES XI ACRONYMS XII DEDICATION XV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVI CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Background of the Study 1 1.2 Genesis of the research 4 1.3 Research Problem 6 1.5 Scope of the study 11 1.6 Significance of the study 12 ii 1.7 Structure of the Study 13 CHAPTER TWO 18 CONCEPTUALIZING GOVERNANCE OF NATURAL RESOURCES 18 2.1. Introduction 18 2.2. Conceptual Discourses in Governance 18 2.2.1. Why Governance? 19 2.2.2. Conceptualizing Governance: Dilemmas and Debates 21 2.3. Global Institutions Concept of Governance. 30 2.4. Questioning Poverty, Livelihoods and Local Governance 35 2.5. Working Definition for Local Governance 41 2.6. A Framework for Governance of Natural Resources. 43 2.6.1. Resources 47 2.6.2. Agency, Structure and Power. 50 2.6.3. Arrangements of Access to Resources 59 2.6.4. Outcomes 61 2.7. Conclusion 62 CHAPTER THREE 64 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 64 3.1. Introduction 64 iii 3.2. Research Strategy and Methodologies 64 3.2.1. Research Design and Strategy of the Study. 64 3.2.2. Phases of Data Collection 70 3.2.3. Methods of Data Collection 78 3.3. Data Recording and Analysis 84 3.4. Reflections on Field Research 86 3.4.1. Reflection on my Position as a Researcher 87 3.4.2 Reflection on Kidnapping. 90 3.5. Ethical Issues Guiding Research Decisions 93 3.6. Conclusion 95 CHAPTER FOUR 97 GOVERNANCE AND DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSE IN THE NIGER DELTA: A HISTORICAL ANALYSIS 97 4.1 Introduction 97 4.2. Power Relationships during Pre-colonial Era. 98 4.2.1. Political Systems in the Pre-colonial Niger Delta. 98 4.2.2. Economic Systems during Pre-colonial Era. 102 4.2.3. Socio-Cultural Environment in the Pre-colonial Period 109 4.3 Governance of the Niger Delta during the Colonial Period. 110 4.3.1. The Colonial State and Local Governance in the Niger Delta 111 4.3.2. Challenges of Governing the Niger Delta during Colonial Period. 114 iv 4.4 Power Relationships after Colonial Period 121 4.4.1. Governance Regimes and Economic Performance in Nigeria 122 4.4.2. The Politics of Development Planning in the Niger Delta. 127 4.4.3. Development Institutions and the Niger Delta. 130 4.5. Struggles for Resource Control in the Delta Region 134 4.6. Conclusion 140 CHAPTER FIVE 144 RESOURCES FOR GOVERNANCE IN THE DELTA 144 5.1 Introduction 144 5.2. Setting the Research Context 146 5.2.1. Theoretical Structure and Functions of Institutions at the Local Level 150 5.3. What constitute resources at the local level? 163 5.4. Resources for Supporting Local Governance Systems 166 5.4.1 Allocative Resources in Bori and Agbere Villages 166 5.4.2 Authoritative Resources in Bori and Agbere Villages 174 5.5. Conclusion 198 CHAPTER SIX 202 AGENCY IN THE GOVERNANCE OF RESOURCES IN THE DELTA 202 6.1. Introduction 202 v 6.2.1. Participatory Spaces at the Village level. 203 6.2.2. Representation at the formal Institutions of the State 210 6.2.3. Representation at the Village Level. 212 6.2.4. Actors’ Collective action at the Village level. 220 6.2.5. Physical Embodiment 224 6.2.6. Dynamics of the Chronically Poor at the Village Level. 228 6.2.7. The Influence of Social Networks 231 6.3. Conclusion 234 CHAPTER SEVEN 237 ARRANGEMENTS OF ACCESS TO RESOURCES IN THE DELTA 237 7.1. Introduction 237 7.2. What determines Arrangements of Access to Local Resources? 238 7.2.1. Arrangements of Access to Land Resources 239 7.2.1.1. Land Management at the Local Level 242 7.2.1.2. Gender and Access to Land at the Local Level 245 7.2.1.3. Arrangements for Resolution of Land Conflict at the Local Level 248 7.2.1.4. State Arrangements for Drawing on Land Resources 252 7.2.2. State and Local Arrangements for Accessing Financial Resources 258 7.2.3. Local Arrangements for Drawing on Infrastructure Resources 263 7.2.4. Physical Arrangements for Supporting Livelihood at the Local Level 270 7.2.5. Arrangements of Access to Institutional Resources 273 7.2.6. Arrangements of Access to Resources of Rights and Entitlements 279 7.3. Conclusion 281 vi GOVERNANCE OUTCOMES IN THE DELTA 285 8.1. Introduction 285 8.2. Governance Outcomes at the Local Level 286 8.2.1. Outcomes for Differentiated Access to Resources at the Village Level 286 8.2.2. Outcomes for Differentiated Livelihoods at the Local Level. 299 8.2.3. Outcomes for Political Voice. 305 8.2.4. Outcomes for Representation 309 8.2.5. Outcomes for Unequal Relationships between Actors at the Local Level 311 8.2.6. Outcomes for Conflict 319 8.2.7. Outcomes for Environment at the State and Local Level 321 8.3. Conclusion 327 CHAPTER NINE 331 CONCLUSIONS 331 9.1 Introduction 331 9.2. The Complexities of Resources for Governance 334 9.3. The Dynamics of Agency in Local Governance 338 9.4. Multiple Arrangements of Access to Local Resources 342 9.5. Multiple Domains of Outcomes for Local Resources 347 9.6. Stretching the Frontiers of Local Governance: Implications for the Study 352 vii 9.6.1. Charting a Collaborative Course for Actors in Local Governance of Natural Resources 353 9.6.2. Strengthening Accountability of Actors 356 9.6.3. Redefining Access of Actors to Local Resources 357 9.7 Suggestions for Further Studies 358 9.8. Contributions to Knowledge 359 APPENDICES 361 BIBLIOGRAPHY 379 viii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Definitions of Governance by Global Institutions 32 Table 3.1 Phases of Data Collection 77 Table 4.1 Typology of Governance Regimes in Nigeria 123 Table 4.2 Post Independence Development Institutions in the Niger Delta 132 Table 8.1 Laws Protecting Environment in the Niger Delta 316 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: A Framework for Governance of Natural Resources 48 Figure 5.1: Map of Bori and Agbere Areas 149 Figure 5.2: Village Administrations at the local level 161 Figure 5.3: State of facilities in Bori General Hospital 176 Figure 5.4: State of facilities in Odi/ Agbere General Hospital 179 Figure 7.1: Infrastructure resources at Bori and Agbere Villages 263 x LIST OF BOXES Box 6.1 Male perception of Chronically Poor 225 Box 6.2 Female perception of Chronically Poor 227 xi ACRONYMS ADB Asian Development Bank AFA Agbere Fishermen Association AIDs Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ATR African Traditional Religion BYSIEC Bayelsa State Independent Electoral Commission CBN Central Bank of Nigeria CBO Community Based Organisations CDC Community Development Committee C of O Certificate of Occupancy CPRC Chronic Poverty Research Centre DFID Department for International Development DPR Department for Petroleum Resources FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency FGDs Focused Group Discussions FOS Federal Office of Statistics FFCS Fish Farmers Co-operative Society FSA Fish Sellers Association GDP Gross Domestic Product HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus IMF International Monetary Fund INEC Independent National Electoral Commission INC Ijaw National Congress IYC Ijaw Youth Council KLGC Khana Local Government Council xii LEEDS Local Economic Empowerment Development Strategy MDGs Millenium Development Goals MEND Movement for the Emancipation of Niger Delta MOSOP Movement for the Survival of Ogoni