HARBOR SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BC IN CILICIA AND THE AMUQ A Master’s Thesis by SEVİLAY ZEYNEP ORUÇ Department of Archaeology İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University Ankara January 2013 To my family HARBOR SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BC IN CILICIA AND THE AMUQ The Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences of İhsan Doğramacı Bilkent University by SEVİLAY ZEYNEP ORUÇ In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS in THE DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BILKENT UNIVERSITY ANKARA January 2013 I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates Supervisor I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. İlknur Özgen Examining Committee Member I certify that I have read this thesis and have found that it is fully adequate, in scope and in quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Archaeology. --------------------------------- Dr. Ekin Kozal Examining Committee Member Approval of the Graduate School of Economics and Social Sciences --------------------------------- Dr. Erdal Erel Director ABSTRACT HARBOR SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF THE SECOND MILLENNIUM BC IN CILICIA AND THE AMUQ Oruç, Sevilay Zeynep M.A., Department of Archaeology Supervisor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates January 2013 This thesis is a study on harbor settlement patterns in the northeastern Mediterranean of the second millennium BC based on geo-archaeological evidence. The purpose of the thesis is to assess a hypothesis that estuaries (river mouths/ outlets) acted as harbors for settlements in Cilicia and the Amuq. In order to pursue the hypothesis further, river transport and inland river harbors are proposed. The thesis will attempt to answer questions such as how harbor settlements can be inferred from archaeological and geomorphological evidence and how archaeology identifies river harbor settlements. Keywords: Harbor settlement patterns, estuary, river transport, MBA and LBA Anatolia, Cilicia, the Amuq Plain. iii ÖZET KİLİKYA VE AMİK OVASI’NDA M. Ö. İKİNCİ BİN LİMAN YERLEŞİM DOKULARI Oruç, Sevilay Zeynep Yüksek Lisans, Arkeoloji Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Doç. Dr. Marie-Henriette Gates Ocak 2013 Bu tez jeo-arkeolojik kanıtlara dayanarak kuzeydoğu Akdeniz’de M.Ö. İkinci bin liman yerleşim dokuları üzerine bir çalışmadır. Bu tezin amacı haliçlerin (nehir ağızları/çıkışları) limanlar olarak görev yapmış olduğu hipotezini Kilikya ve Amik Ovası’ndaki yerleşimler için değerlendirmektir. Bu hipotezi takip etmek için, nehir taşımacılığı ve iç/karasal nehir limanları önerilir. Bu tez liman yerleşimleri arkeolojik ve jeomorfolojik kanıtlardan nasıl anlaşılabilinir ve arkeoloji nehir limanı yerleşimle- rini nasıl tanımlar gibi soruları cevaplandırmaya çalışacaktır. Anahtar kelimeler: Liman yerleşim dokuları, nehir ağzı, nehir taşımacılığı, OTÇ ve GTÇ Anadolu, Kilikya, Amik Ovası. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply indebted forever to my supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Marie- Henriette Gates, for her great encouragement and valuable guidance throughout this thesis. She gave her time to read and correct my thesis. Without her patience and strongly support, I would never have been able to complete this thesis. I would like to express my gratitude to Assoc. Prof. Dr. İlknur Özgen for her valuable and constructive comments on this thesis, and to Dr. Ekin Kozal who was always ready to offer advice and support this study. I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Mirko Novák, who was encouraging me to study on the Cilician harbor settlement patterns during the excavation project of Sirkeli Höyük. I warmly thank Dr. Lucy Blue, for her generosity to send me some parts of her PhD dissertation without question for giving support this study. I also owe much to my all friends from this faculty for their friendship and support. My special and endlessly thanks go to my family who has consistently supported me during the writing of this thesis and in whatever I wanted to do. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT........................................................................................................... iii ÖZET...................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................... vi LIST OF MAPS..................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................... x ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................... 1 1.1 Geographical Scope of the Thesis.................................................................... 3 1.2 Methodology.................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 2: LANDSCAPES OF CILICIA AND THE AMUQ......................... 7 2.1 Geomorphology of the Region of Cilicia......................................................... 7 2.1.1 The Göksu Valley................................................................................... 7 2.1.2 Çukurova/Plain Cilicia............................................................................ 8 2.1.3 Dörtyol and Erzin Plains......................................................................... 11 2.2 Geomorphology of the Region of Amuq.......................................................... 12 2.3 The Geomorphology of Regional Sites............................................................ 14 vi 2.3.1 Tarsus-Gözlükule Höyük........................................................................ 14 2.3.2 Kinet Höyük............................................................................................ 15 2.3.3 Sabuniye Höyük...................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 3: ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR HARBOR SETTLEMENT PATTERNS........................................................... 18 3.1 The Landscape as Evidence for Harbor Settlements......................................... 18 3.2 Artifacts as Evidence for Harbor Settlements................................................... 22 3.2.1 Ceramics................................................................................................... 23 3.2.2 Local Trends in Ceramics Styles.............................................................. 25 3.2.3 Shipwrecks and Their Cargoes................................................................. 26 3.2.4 Boats......................................................................................................... 28 3.2.5 Marine Industries...................................................................................... 28 3.3 Architectural Features Specific to Harbors........................................................ 29 CHAPTER 4: THE IMPORTANCE OF RIVERS AND RIVER TRANSPORT................................................................................... 31 4.1 River Transport.................................................................................................. 32 4.2 River Boats........................................................................................................ 34 CHAPTER 5: THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF REGIONAL HARBORS................... 43 5.1. Western Cilicia/Rough Cilicia.......................................................................... 43 5.1.1 Kilise Tepe.............................................................................................. 43 5.2. Cilician Plain/Smooth Cilicia........................................................................... 46 5.2.1 Soli Höyük............................................................................................... 46 5.2.2 Mersin-Yumuktepe Höyük...................................................................... 47 5.2.3 Tarsus-Gözlükule Höyük......................................................................... 48 vii 5.2.4 Kazanlı.................................................................................................... 50 5.2.5 Domuz Tepe............................................................................................ 52 5.2.6 Sirkeli Höyük.......................................................................................... 53 5.2.7 Karahöyük/Erzin..................................................................................... 55 5.2.8 Kinet Höyük ........................................................................................... 56 5.3 A Transition Zone between Cilicia and the Amuq........................................... 58 5.3.1 Dağılbaz Höyük....................................................................................... 58 5.4 The Amuq Valley and the Asi Delta Plain....................................................... 58 5.4.1 Tell Atchana/Alalakh.............................................................................. 58 5.4.2 Sabuniye Höyük/Sabouniyeh..................................................................