The Professionalisation of the Indonesian Military Robertus Anugerah Purwoko Putro A thesis submitted to the University of New South Wales In fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Humanities and Social Sciences July 2012 STATEMENTS Originality Statement I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged. Copyright Statement I hereby grant to the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or in part in all forms of media, now or hereafter known. I retain all property rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. Authenticity Statement I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred, and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion of digital format. Signed ……………………………………. ABSTRACT This thesis examines the factors influencing the professionalisation of the Indonesian military. It looks beyond the ‘civil-military relations’ paradigm of conventional analysis, focusing instead on the cultural and historical legacies that have instilled a particular system of values in the military. In turn, these values are reinforced by the military’s educational and professional experience. It inquires into the legacy of political and social upheavals in 1965, when state power became heavily concentrated in the hands of the Indonesian Army. The post- 1965 New Order regime buttressed its power by subordinating the Indonesian military and police to the supremacy of the Indonesian Army. In turn, the Army engaged in a process of cultural and historical self-legitimisation in order to cement its authority within the armed forces as well as within Indonesian society more generally. The thesis explores how concepts of what constituted Indonesian military professionalism were redefined and re-engineered according to certain values defined by the Army. The thesis shows how these historical and cultural legacies weigh heavily on contemporary attempts to reform the Indonesian military, creating major obstacles to its professionalisation. It focuses on the educational process as a ‘cultural centre’ from which military professionalism begins. Military education has become an arena in which soldiers’ cognitive schema, professional knowledge, and traditions are constructed. It is an arena where culture and values are invented, inculcated, and preserved across generations, especially for the officer corps. The thesis argues that prospects for Indonesian military professionalism remain incarcerated within a self- created historical legacy according to myths that the Indonesian Army has itself invented. It shows how the combination of historical legacy and cultural practices has produced a long-term crisis of professionalism. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS While the responsibility of the content is mine, I have been fortunate to have received gracious assistance from many people, despite naming only a few, in completing this thesis. It was Dr Alan Stephens who helped me enter the doctoral program at the University of New South Wales (UNSW) Canberra. Thus, my special thanks begin with him. Next, my grateful thanks go to my supervisor, Associate Professor Clinton Fernandes. I learned and learned, I grew, and remain indebted to Clinton, whose relentless help and guidance made this work possible. He encouraged me to think in new ways and provided valuable guidance throughout most of my candidacy, especially when frustration struck me on this erratic intellectual journey. This thesis would never have seen the light of day without generous financial support and sponsorship from AusAID-Australian Leadership Awards (ALA) for which I am very thankful. Special thanks also go to the TNI Headquarters and the Ministry of Defence that gave me an opportunity to carry out postgraduate study in Australia. I also wish to express my gratitude to the successive Defence Attachés of the Republic of Indonesia in Canberra, AFM Kuswantoro, AFM Modjo Basuki and AFM B Widjanarko whose support has been equally important during my four year stay in Queanbeyan, New South Wales. The School of Humanities and Social Sciences (HASS) has been a very congenial research home that made my research pleasurable. I am indebted to many people at HASS, but just to mention a few, who provided me with hospitality and administrative support, especially Professor David Lovell, Bernadette McDermott, Jo Muggleton, Shirley Ramsay, Marilyn Anderson-Smith, and Dr Craig Stockings. My thanks also go to Dr Minako Sakai, Dr Edwin Jurriens, Ida Nurhayati, Tony Kitting, Paul Tickell, Kerry Neale, Deanne Gibbon, and Tomohito Kimura. At the UNSW Canberra Research Office, I wish to thank especially Elvira Berra and Danica Robinson for their kind assistance I have received during my candidacy. My sincere gratitude also goes to the following: Professor S Budhisantoso of the University of Indonesia, AM Dr Rio Mendung Thalieb, AM Eris Herryanto, AVM Erry Biatmoko, BRIGEN Suwanto, AFM A Sunaryo, and a number of Indonesian middle officers (colonels): Age Wiraksono, Sri Subijarso, Penny Radjendra, Dedy Ghazi Elsyaf, Wajariman, Made Susila, Andi Kustoro, Djoko Tjahjono, Bambang Wijanarko, Taufan Gestoro, Anton Santosa, Sri Pulung, Hendrikus Joko Rianto, Bambang Pramushinto, Ishak Setyadi Sjam, M Fadjar Sumarijadji, and Widyargo Ikoputra. I also wish to thank Nuniek N Irianti, a former staff at the Australian Embassy Defence Section Jakarta who assisted me in seeking for an AusAID scholarship, and Lydia Randall who proof-read this thesis. I would also like to make special mention of my Indonesian friends and relatives: Pakde Yama, Bude Mar, Dimas Nugroho, Sudi and Asti Mungkasi, Budi Hernawan, Bayu Dardias, Rahman Abdurrohman, Dr Hendra Gunawan, Najib Kailani, M Falikul Isbah, Fahlesa Munabari, Mahardhika Pratama, Irman Hermadi, Sheila Tobing, Nurhadi Siswanto, and ICC-Canberra members who brightened my difficult days with warm friendship and humour. Thanks to all of you for encouraging me and for the practical help along the way. Finally, I am most grateful for all blessings and tremendous support from my family members. Above all, my heartfelt thanks go to my beloved family, my wise and beautiful wife Monika Indriana Retno Dewati, my son Daniel Wenzelando Purwoko and my daughter Agnes Clarissa Purwoko for their patience, continuing prayers, support and encouragement. Their love has inspired me to complete this difficult study. To my parents and parents in law, I remain indebted for their enduring prayers throughout my life. I also wish to thank my extended family for their support and assistance during my study. TABLE OF CONTENTS STATEMENTS ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS 1. INTRODUCTION Research Methodology and Significance of the Study 8 Structure of the Thesis 12 2. A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 14 3. 1965: ABOUT TURN 25 Integrating the Indonesian Armed Forces (ABRI): AnAttitude Adjustment 37 ABRI and Popular Mass Depoliticisation 43 ‘Army-isation’ of the Indonesian Armed Forces 63 The ‘Army-isation’ofIndonesian: Cultural and Historic Tactics 73 Rewriting and Controlling Indonesia’s History 76 The End of New Order and ABRI’s Dwifungsi 105 4. PROFESSIONAL OFFICER EDUCATION: MILITARY (TNI) ACADEMY 110 Indonesian Military Officer Education A Historical Overview 111 Selection of TNI Academy Cadets 123 ‘Army-isation’ of the Officer Education Philosophy 131 Life in Cadet Corps: Traditions 151 Cadet as a Student 170 Knowledge as Temporary Information 182 Pragmatic Character of the Academy 187 5. HIGHER EDUCATION FOR MILITARY LEADERS 200 6. MILITARY (IN)DISCIPLINE AND IMPUNITY 258 Military (In)discipline: Violation of the International Humanitarian Law in East Timor 1975-1999 262 A Culture of Impunity: An Obstacle to Professionalisation of the TNI 278 7. CONCLUSION 298 BIBLIOGRAPHY 319 APPENDIX 332 GLOSSARY AND ABBREVIATIONS AAHU Australian Army History Unit AAL Akademi Angkatan Laut (Navy Academy) AAU Akademi Angkatan Udara (Air Force Academy) ABRI Angkatan Bersenjata Republic Indonesia (Indonesian Armed Forces) AD Angkatan Darat (Army) ADFA Australian Defence Force Academy AKABRI Akademi Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia (Academy of the Indonesian Armed Forces) AKMIL Akademi Militer (Military Academy) AKPOL Akademi Kepolisian ( Police Academy) AL Angkatan Laut (Navy) AMD ABRI Masuk Desa (Armed Forces Enters the Village) AMN Akademi Militer Nasional (National Military Academy), see AKMIL ANTARA Indonesia national news agency ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations AU Angkatan Udara (Air Force) Babinsa Bintara Pembina Desa (Village