Fear and Resistance The Construction of Alawi Identity in Syria Torstein Schiøtz Worren Master thesis in human geography Dept of Sociology and Human Geography University of Oslo February 2007 I II Fear and Resistance The Construction of Alawi Identity in Syria Torstein Schiøtz Worren Master thesis in human geography Dept of Sociology and Human Geography University of Oslo February 2007 III IV ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺧﻠﻖ اﷲ اﻟﻜﻮن، ﺧﻠﻖ ﻣﻦ آﻞ ﺷﻲء زوج. ﻓﻘﺎل اﻟﺠﻮاب: أﻧﺎ ذاهﺐ ﻟﺴﻮرﻳﺎ ، ﻓﻘﺎل اﻟﺴﺆال : أﻧﺎ ذاهﺐ اﻟﻰ .هﻨﺎك أﻳﻀﺎ ً آﻌﺐ اﻷﺣﺒﺎر / When God created the world, he paired all things. ‘I shall go to Syria’ said Answer. ‘That is also where I am going’ said Question. Ka’b al-Ahbar V Photo on front page by author Quote on previous page from: Sahīh al-Bukhārī. Sahīh al-Bukhārī, 1963, page 213 VI CONTENTS Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................IX Map of Syria.............................................................................................................. X 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................... 1 Levels of analysis....................................................................................................... 3 The structure of the thesis .......................................................................................... 5 2 METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................... 7 Challenges to research in Syria .................................................................................. 7 Design......................................................................................................................... 9 Approach .................................................................................................................. 10 Positioning................................................................................................................ 12 Methods.................................................................................................................... 14 Observation ........................................................................................................... 15 Informal conversations.......................................................................................... 16 Semi-structured interviews.................................................................................... 17 Sources ..................................................................................................................... 17 A note on referencing ............................................................................................ 20 Analysis.................................................................................................................... 20 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 21 3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK................................................................................... 22 Constructivism in the Social Sciences ..................................................................... 22 The construction of meaning.................................................................................... 23 Identity as discourse................................................................................................. 26 Individual identity ................................................................................................. 27 Collective identity.................................................................................................. 28 Antagonism............................................................................................................ 29 Domination and resistance ....................................................................................... 30 Nationalism and narrative ........................................................................................ 33 National narrative................................................................................................. 34 Ethnic myths .......................................................................................................... 35 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 37 4 THE CONTEXT.......................................................................................................... 38 People and history .................................................................................................... 38 The Alawis ............................................................................................................... 43 The ‘secular’ state and the Official Discourse ......................................................... 49 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 52 5 CONSTRUCTING HISTORY........................................................................................ 53 In the beginning, there was the name? ..................................................................... 53 Origins and beliefs ................................................................................................... 55 The Golden Age ....................................................................................................... 57 The Decline and Trauma .......................................................................................... 58 Domination and resistance ....................................................................................... 60 The Regeneration ..................................................................................................... 61 Antagonism and discourse ....................................................................................... 63 The Islamic Discourse........................................................................................... 64 The Critical Discourse .......................................................................................... 66 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 67 VII 6 CONSTRUCTING SOCIETY ........................................................................................ 69 ‘Us’ and ‘Them’ ....................................................................................................... 69 Inter-sectarian relations............................................................................................ 72 Relations between Alawis and Sunnis ................................................................... 75 Relations between Alawis and Christians ............................................................. 77 Hegemony and disguise ........................................................................................... 78 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 82 7 CONSTRUCTING POLITICS ....................................................................................... 84 Proving history right................................................................................................. 84 An ‘Alawi’ regime?.................................................................................................. 87 The durability of fear................................................................................................ 91 Political circumstances and their impact.................................................................. 94 Alawi support for the regime ................................................................................... 96 In conclusion ............................................................................................................ 97 8 CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 99 The Sunni hegemony................................................................................................ 99 The Islamic Discourse and the Critical Discourse ................................................. 101 From discourse to identity...................................................................................... 102 In conclusion .......................................................................................................... 103 References .............................................................................................................. 104 Online References .................................................................................................. 107 VIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis would not have been possible had it not been for a number of people. First and foremost, I would like to thank all those Syrians and Alawis who have contributed to this thesis one way or another: either as willing participants or as unaware subjects in daily life. The thesis is the result of their time, hospitality, and willingness to answer my never-ending questions. I am also grateful to all the people I have met on my way and who have made my stays in Syria so enjoyable and interesting. Any faults or misinterpretations in this thesis are entirely my own. In addition, I would like to thank my tutors Elin Sæther and Kristian Stokke for their critical remarks and encouraging comments, and Frida Nome at PRIO for interesting and inspiring